Buddhism

[Alkman]

Buddhism

For centuries, Buddhism has been the dominant religion of the Eastern world. Today it remains the predominant religion in China, Japan, Korea, and much of southeast Asia. With the rise of the Asian population in the U.S., Buddhism has made a tremendous impact in the United States. Presently, there are over 300,000 Buddhists in the U.S. It remains the dominant religion in the state of Hawaii and many prominent Americans have accepted this religion, including the former governor of California, Jerry Brown.

The Origin of Buddhism

Buddhism began as an offspring of Hinduism in the country of India. The founder was Siddhartha Gautama. It is not easy to give an accurate historical account of the life of Gautama, since no biography was recorded until hundreds of years after his death. Today, much of his life story is clouded in myths and legends which arose after his death. Even the best historians of our day have several different--and even contradictory--accounts of Gautama's life.


Siddhartha Gautama was born in approximately 560 B.C. in northern India. His father Suddhodana was the ruler over a district near the Himalayas which is today the country of Nepal. Suddhodana sheltered his son from the outside world and confined him to the palace where he surrounded Gautama with pleasures and wealth. Despite his father's efforts, Gautama one day saw the darker side of life on a trip he took outside the palace walls.

He saw four things that forever changed his life: an old man, a sick man, a dead man, and a beggar. Deeply distressed by the suffering he saw, he decided to leave the luxury of palace life and begin a quest to find the answer to the problem of pain and human suffering.

Gautama left his family and traveled the country seeking wisdom. He studied the Hindu scriptures under Brahmin priests, but became disillusioned with the teachings of Hinduism. He then devoted himself to a life of extreme asceticism in the jungle. Legend has it that he eventually learned to exist on one grain of rice a day which reduced his body to a skeleton. He soon concluded, however, that asceticism did not lead to peace and self realization but merely weakened the mind and body.

Gautama eventually turned to a life of meditation. While deep in meditation under a fig tree known as the Bohdi tree (meaning, "tree of wisdom"), Gautama experienced the highest degree of God-consciousness called Nirvana. Gautama then became known as Buddha, the "enlightened one." He believed he had found the answers to the questions of pain and suffering. His message now needed to be proclaimed to the whole world.

As he began his teaching ministry, he gained a quick audience with the people of India since many had become disillusioned with Hinduism. By the time of his death at age 80, Buddhism had become a major force in India. Three centuries later it had spread to all of Asia. Buddha never claimed to be deity but rather a "way- shower." However, seven hundred years later, followers of Buddha began to worship him as deity.

The Way of Salvation

The question Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, sought to answer was, Why is there pain and suffering? Also, he held to the Hindu belief of reincarnation: after death one returns to earthly life in a higher or lower form of life according to his good or bad deeds. This belief prompted a second question that needed to be answered, How does one break this rebirth cycle? The basic teachings of Buddhism, therefore, focus on what Gautama believed to be the answer to these questions. These basic tenants are found in the Four Noble Truths and the Eight-fold Path. Let us begin with the Four Noble Truths.

The First Noble Truth is that there is pain and suffering in the world. Gautama realized that pain and suffering are omnipresent in all of nature and human life. To exist means we will all encounter suffering. Birth is painful and so is death. Sickness and old age are painful. Throughout life, all living things encounter suffering.

The Second Noble Truth relates to the cause of suffering. Gautama believed the root cause of suffering is desire. It is the craving for wealth, happiness, and other forms of selfish enjoyment which cause suffering. These cravings can never be satisfied for they are rooted in ignorance.

The Third Noble Truth is the end of all suffering. Suffering will cease when a person can rid himself of all desires.

The Fourth Noble Truth is the extinguishing of all desire by following the eight-fold path. "The eight-fold path is a system of therapy designed to develop habits which will release people from the restrictions caused by ignorance and craving."

Here are the eight steps in following the eight-fold path. The first is the Right Views. One must accept the four noble truths. Step two is the Right Resolve. One must renounce all desires and any thoughts like lust, bitterness, and cruelty. He must harm no living creature. Step three is the Right Speech. One must speak only truth. There can be no lying, slander, or vain talk. Step four is the Right Behavior. One must abstain from sexual immorality, stealing, and all killing.

Step five is the Right Occupation. One must work in an occupation that benefits others and harms no one. Step six is the Right Effort. One must seek to eliminate any evil qualities within and prevent any new ones from arising. One should seek to attain good and moral qualities and develop those already possessed. Seek to grow in maturity and perfection until universal love is attained. Step seven is the Right Contemplation. One must be observant, contemplative, and free of desire and sorrow. The eighth is the Right Meditation. After freeing oneself of all desires and evil, a person must concentrate his efforts in meditation so that he can overcome any sensation of pleasure or pain and enter a state of transcending consciousness and attain a state of perfection. Buddhists believe that through self effort one can attain the state of peace and eternal bliss called Nirvana.

Karma, Samsara, and Nirvana

Three important concepts in understanding Buddhism are karma, Samsara, and Nirvana.

Karma refers to the law of cause and effect in a person's life, reaping what one has sown. Buddhists believe that every person must go through a process of birth and rebirth until he reaches the state of nirvana in which he breaks this cycle. According to the law of karma, "You are what you are and do what you do, as a result of what you were and did in a previous incarnation, which in turn was the inevitable outcome of what you were and did in still earlier incarnations." For a Buddhist, what one will be in the next life depends on one's actions in this present life. Buddha believed, unlike Hinduism, that a person can break the rebirth cycle no matter what class he is born into.

The second key concept to understand is the law of Samsara or Transmigration. This is one of the most perplexing and difficult concepts in Buddhism to understand. The law of Samsara holds that everything is in a birth and rebirth cycle. Buddha taught that people do not have individual souls. The existence of an individual self or ego is an illusion. There is no eternal substance of a person which goes through the rebirth cycle. What is it then that goes through the cycle if not the individual soul? What goes through the rebirth cycle is only a set of feelings, impressions, present moments, and the karma that is passed on. "In other words, as one process leads to another, ... so one's human personality in one existence is the direct cause of the type of individuality which appears in the next." The new individual in the next life will not be exactly the same person, but there will be several similarities. Just how close in identity they will be, Buddha did not define.

The third key concept is Nirvana. The term means "the blowing out" of existence. Nirvana is very different from the Christian concept of heaven. Nirvana is not a place like heaven but rather a state of being. What exactly it is, Buddha never really articulated.

Nirvana is an eternal state of being. It is the state in which the law of karma, and the rebirth cycle come to an end. It is the end of suffering, a state where there are no desires and the individual consciousness comes to an end. Although to our Western minds this may sound like annihilation, Buddhists would object to such a notion. Gautama never gave an exact description of Nirvana, but his closest reply was this. "There is disciples, a condition, where there is neither earth nor water, neither air nor light, neither limitless space, nor limitless time, neither any kind of being, neither ideation nor non-ideation, neither this world nor that world. There is neither arising nor passing-away, nor dying, neither cause nor effect, neither change nor standstill."Although no Buddhist really understands the condition of Nirvana, it is their eternal hope.

God and Buddhism

It may have occurred to the reader that in our discussion thus far no mention has been made of God or an eternal deity. It is clear that Gautama, the founder of Buddhism, did not claim to be divine. He claimed to be the one to point the way to Nirvana, but it was up to each individual to find his own way there.

The concept of a personal God does not fit into the Buddhist system of religion. Today there are many sects of Buddhism. Many differ in their concept of the divine and of Buddha. In general, Buddhists are pantheistic in their view of God. Many view God as an impersonal force which is made up of all living things and holds the universe together.

Here are what some of the most prominent of scholars say of the Buddhist view of God. Dr. John Noss states, "there is no sovereign Person in the heavens holding all together in unity, there is only the ultimate impersonal unity of being itself, whose peace enfolds the individual self when it ceases to call itself 'I' and dissolves in the featureless purity of Nirvana, as a drop of spray is merged in its mother sea."

Here is what the late Dr. Suzuki, one of the greatest teachers of Zen Buddhism, says about his concept of God: "If God after making the world puts Himself outside it, He is no longer God. If He separates Himself from the world or wants to separate Himself, He is not God. The world is not the world when it is separated from God. God must be in the world and the world in God."

Since Buddhism in general does not believe in a personal God or divine being, it does not have worship, praying, or praising of a divine being. It offers no form of redemption, forgiveness, heavenly hope, or final judgment. Buddhism is, therefore, more of a moral philosophy, an ethical way of life.

Professor Kraemer describes the Buddhist system as "a non-theistic ethical discipline, a system of self training, anthropocentric, stressing ethics and mind-culture to the exclusion of theology."

Since Gautama's death, many sects have developed within Buddhism. Many of these sects differ in many fundamental ways and comparing them to one another is like comparing two separate religions. Many sects have developed their own unique concept of God. Some are pantheistic in their view of God. Others are atheistic. Still others have developed a polytheistic system of gods. Some have combined pantheism and polytheism. Several sects have elevated Gautama (or Buddha) to the level of a savior or divine being although it is clear he never claimed to be a deity. Other sects have combined some of the doctrines of God from other religions with Buddhism.

Since Buddha never emphasized his concept of the divine, Buddhism is left with some life's deepest questions unanswered, questions such as the origin of the universe and the purpose of man's existence.

A Comparative Study of Christianity and Buddhism

It is quite clear that Christianity and Buddhism differ from one another in fundamental ways. Some sects of Buddhism have tried to synchronize the two together. However, the two are so different, they cannot both be right at the same time, nor can the two be blended together. Here is a comparison of these two religions.

Much of the Buddhist scriptures and sayings attributed to Gautama were written about four hundred years after his death. By the time they were written, Buddhism had split into many sects. What do we have then? Even the best scholars are not sure of the accuracy of the Buddhist scriptures. In Christianity, however, we have an accurate historical account written by eyewitnesses to Jesus and the events surrounding His life.

The two differ in their concept of God. For Buddhists in general, the Absolute does not play a vital role in daily living. Gautama said little about his concept of God. Buddha denied the existence of a personal God but was monistic in his view of the Absolute as an impersonal force made up of all living things. The Bible teaches of a God who rules the universe, and cares for man in a personal way. Psalm 46:10 states, "Be still and know that I am God. I will be exalted among the nations, I will be exalted among the earth."

It is clear that Buddha never claimed to be deity. Although several sects have elevated him to athe status of a god, he clearly claimed to be only the way-shower to Nirvana. Jesus, however, claimed to be God and not simply a way-shower but instead the only way to eternal life. Jesus said in John 14:6, "I am the way, the truth, and the life. No one comes to the Father except through me." John 1:1 also states, "In the beginning was the Word, and the Word was with God, and the Word was God."

There is another clear distinction between these two religions. Buddhism offers neither assurance of forgiveness or eternal life. Buddhists hope to enter into the state of Nirvana, but there is no clear, objective proof or teaching on what occurs beyond the grave. Even Buddha himself was not certain what lay beyond death. He left no clear teaching on Nirvana or eternity. What he did leave are philosophical speculations. Today the body of Buddha lies in a grave in Kusinara, at the foot of the Himalaya Mountains. The facts of life after death still remain an unsolved mystery in Buddhism.

In Christianity we have One who amazed His audience because He taught eternal truths with authority. His authority came from the fact that He existed before creation, and He proved His claims by rising from the dead. The Resurrection of Jesus Christ is a proven fact of history and clearly demonstrates Christ's authority over sin and death. When witnessing to a Buddhist, ask him this: "Do you have tangible proof of what occurs after death?" All the Buddhist has is hope in a teaching Buddha was not sure of. As Christians, we have a certain hope in a risen Savior. There is no guessing what happens beyond the grave because Christ alone has conquered the grave.

Pat Zukeran

[Arthur Gordon Pym]

Taoism

1. I. Group Profile
   
   
   1. Name : Taoism
   2. Founder : Lao-tzu
   3. Date of Birth : 551 B.C.E.
   4. Birth Place : China
   5. Year Founded : 440 C.E.
   6. Sacred or Revered Texts :
      The most recognized Taoist text is the Tao Te Ching, "The Way of Power," or "The Book of the Way." It is believed to have been written by Lao-Tse but there is a great deal of controversy surrounding the authorship. Most scholars today believe that the Tao Te Ching wasn't written until about 300 to 250 B.C.E. Recent studies even suggest that the Tao Te Ching may have actually been written within a circle of scholarly men. 1 The Tao Te Ching describes the nature of life, the way to peace, and how a ruler should lead his life. The book itself is very short. It is only 5000 characters contained in 81 chapters. The Tao Te Ching is divided into two parts: the Tao-ching and the Te-ching. Very early in history it is possible that these two texts existed individually, however, at some time they were translated together and remain this way today.
      Chuang-tzu (named after its author) is the second most recognized Taoist text. The Chuang-tzu contains additional teachings relevent to Taoism. It describes Taoist philosophy in greater detail as well as relays stories of Taoist masters and disciples. The Chuang-tzu highlights techniques that focus on breathing, meditation, sexual activity, and diet. The Chuang-tzu is organized into three sections. It is not clear as to when this text was written however estimates are that it was written, sometime in the fourth century B.C.E. 2
      Two other texts, the T'ai-p'ing Ching, "Classic of the Great Peace," and the Pao P'u Tzu, "Master Embracing Simplicity," are also recognized as part of the Taoist canon. Both of these texts were written in the third and fourth centuries. These texts elaborate ways for Taoists to obtain immortality by concocting magical potions, adhe ring to special diets, engaging in sexual activity, and by studying alchemical substances. 3
   7. Cult or Sect :
      
      Negative sentiments are typically implied when the concepts "cult" and "sect" are employed in popular discourse. Since the Religious Movements Homepage seeks to promote religious tolerance and appreciation of the positive benefits of pluralism and religious diversity in human cultures, we encourage the use of alternative concepts that do not carry implicit negative stereotypes. For a more detailed discussion of both scholarly and popular usage of the concepts "cult" and "sect," please visit our Conceptualizing "Cult" and "Sect" page, where you will find additional links to related issues.
   8. Size of Group : 20 million world wide 4
   
   
   
   
   II. History
   
   
   1. The history of the Taoist tradition is both ancient and rich. The first records of Taoism can be traced back to the Warring States of China (481-221 B.C.E.). 5 During this time Taoism was considered to be a combination of philosophy and psychology. 6 This philosophy grew out of several different philosophies that were also developing during this time, one being Confucianism. Lao Tzu, "Old Master," the founder of Taoism, is considered to be the author of the Tao Te Ching. Lao Tzu based all of his teachings on this book. It is believed that in his creation of the Taoist philosophy, Lao Tzu hoped to put an end to the feudal warfare and other conflicts that were present in China at the time. The writings in the Tao Te Ching focus mainly on the nature of life, the path to peace, and the ways that a ruler should lead his life.
      The Tao Te Ching and later the Chaung tzu laid the ground work for philosophical Taoism. This philosophy came to dominate the imperial courts throughout most parts of China until about the second century when a religious form of Taoism appeared in the province of Szechuan.
      Religious Taoism was started when Chiang Ling claimed that he had received a revelation from Lao Tzu which instructed him to implement Lao Tzu's "orthodox and sole doctrine of the authority of the covenant." Upon his death, it is said that Chiang Ling ascended to Heaven where he earned the title Heavenly Master. After he obtained this title, a succession of followers who were also called Heavenly Masters founded an independent organization to instruct the faithful on the works of Lao Tzu. The main tenets of their teachings were on the right actions and good works. 7 In about 215 C.E. Chiang Ling's grandson was the first to have Taoism recognized as an organized religion.
      Often, Heavenly Masters were able to acquire persuasive roles within the Chinese court system. They acted as intermediaries between the ruler and the people. 8 By 300 C.E. most of the powerful families in northern China had become adherents to religious Taoism.
      As religious Taoism spread, the Heavenly Masters began practicing increasingly diverse and elaborate ceremonies and rituals. Despite religious Taoism's widespread success it failed to establish a central authority. As a result, religious Taoism broke into many sects. While all of the sects looked back to Lao Tzu, they all placed a different emphasis on the scriptures and observed independent ritualistic ceremonies. As a result of the number of sects, religious Taoism has experienced a large loss of followers. 9
      The end of the Ch'ing dynasty in 1911 brought about the end of state support for Taoism. During this time a great deal of the Taoist heritage was destroyed as a result of warlordism that was going on. "The new government put monks to manual labor, confiscated temples, and plundered treasure. Several million monks were reduced to fewer than 50,000" by 1960. 10
      When the Communist Party gained control of China in 1949 religious freedom again was severely hampered. The Taoist tradition was further challenged during the cultural revolution in China from 1966 to 1976. During the revolution much of the remaining Taoist heritage that had been saved during the first battle was destroyed. During his reign, Deng Xiao-ping (China's head of state) was able to restore some religious tolerance in China. These efforts are continued today by the current President of China, Jiang Zemin. 11
      Today Taoism has approximately 20 million followers around the world. Scholars believe that about 30,000 Taoists live in North America. 12 In the United States the impact of Taoism is significant in the fields of acupuncture, holistic medicine, herbalism, meditation, and the martial arts.
      Taoism became one of the three great religions of China along with Buddhism and Confucianism. The Taoist philosophy continues to have a major influence in the daily lives of people throughout Asia. Religious Taoism, however, is not nearly as widespread as it once was. Only in Taiwan where in recent years Religious Taoism has experienced a renaissance, is it still widely practiced. 13
   
   III. Beliefs of the Group
   
   1. The term Taoism refers to the school that focuses on the significance of the Tao. Most scholars, however, use the word Tao in different contexts. Even individual Taoists are likely to define the Tao in different terms. 14 As a result, one of the most difficult tasks is determining the specific beliefs of Taoists. Because the tradition is so ancient, and is linked so closely with Confucianism, it can be difficult to distinguish the individual beliefs. Often a person is likely to consider themselves a Taoist and a Confucian. 15
      It is clear, however, that the main tenet of Taoism is the belief in Tao. It is difficult to translate the exact meaning of Tao into English. In the most general terms it can be translated as the path or the way. The Tao is the path that one must follow in life. From this perspective it is a code of behavior. The Tao is the natural order of all things and is based on the principles of Yin and Yang. Primarily speaking, however, Taoists believe that Tao is the universal life force or the underlying nature of all things that exist in the world. 16
      Taoism is a polytheistic religion. Each of the gods is believed to be a manifestation of some aspect of the Tao. Taoists, however, do not pray to any of these gods. Unlike Christianity, for example, Taoist gods are not personified. There is no god that can solve any of life's problems. Rather, Taoists seek the solutions to life's problems through personal meditation and observation.
      According to the Tao Te Ching the basic problem that we all face is that we do not know who we truly are. According to Taosim we humans are part of a cosmic process known as the Tao. In life our fundamental choice is to either acknowledge this reality and let ourselves become one with the Tao, or to resist what we are and attempt to establish our own separate identities outside of the Tao. 17
      Taoists believe that the world that we experience is the manifestation of the unmanifest Tao. The pattern of the Tao is one of return. In other words, it is a process of coming into being, maturing, and then decaying and returning to the Tao. Everyting in the world is a part of this constant cycle. All things possess their own te or destiny. When this te is not opposed it will naturally manifest itself in the process of life. 18
      The idea of nonaction as representing the natural course of things is a fundamental belief of Taoism. 19 Nonaction is not to say that Taoists subscribe to passive activities. This idea of nonaction refers mainly to the constant interaction of Yin and Yang which are believed to govern the behavior of all things. Yin and Yang are considered to be complimentary aspects of the Tao that create natural order in the world. Yin is a feminine energy. It is thought of as the breath that formed the earth. It is represented by cold, evil, dark, and negative principles. Yang is masculine energy. It is thought of as the breath that formed the heavens. It is characterized by warmth, good, light, and positive principles. It is important to note that without Yin there is no Yang and without Yang there is no Yin. Everything in nature must have both Yin and Yang. These two are not polar opposites but identical aspects of the same idea. 20
      The idea that opposite sides always transform into each other is the philosophical foundation of Lao Tzu's methodology. It is also an aspect of Wu Wei. 21 The highest virtue of Taoism is to never act but to leave nothing undone. The concept of nonaction, or Wu Wei is another of the main concepts of Taoism. It refers to doing things so that it appears that a person is making no effort to accomplish the goal. By adhering to the principle of Wu Wei, a person is thought to be closely following the way. A person who lives by Wu Wei has returned to his or her original nature, before he or she was tampered with by knowledge. This state is likened to that of an uncarved block and is referred to as Pu. 22 Lao Tzu believed that Wu Wei would lead to a peaceful and harmonious society. 23
      Taoists believe that man is a microcosm for the universe. They believe that the body corresponds with the plan of the universe. The five organs of the body correspond to the five directions, the five holy mountains, the sections of the sky, the seasons, and the elements. Taoists believe that by understanding man a person can comprehend the ultimate structure of the universe. 24
      Taoists believe that there are three jewels, or characteristics, that all Taoists should live by. These jewels are stated in the Tao Te Ching. The three jewels are compassion, moderation and humility. This compassion ultimately leads to courage, moderation leads to generosity, and humility leads to leadership. All these are necessary to return to the Tao. The ultimate goal of Taoism is to become one with the Tao. For humans, this means leading a natural and simple life. 25 Clutter from outside is thought to influence and obstruct a person's understanding of the Tao. However, being in harmony with the Tao allows the person to return to the original state of all things and become the Tao. 26
   
   
   
   
   IV. Deities
   
   1. Because Taoism is a polytheistic religion there is not one single god to worship or honor. Religious adherents often choose one of many gods that is especially useful at a particular time. I have chosen some of the main deities worshipped in Taoist temples by the various Taoist sects. Each of these deities represents different qualities. They all have different attributes and are worshiped at various ceremonies throughout the year.
      Yu-huang -- Jade Emperor Yu-huang is considered the foremost deity of popular Taoism. He is the ruler of Heaven. He is also considered to be the ruler of all the other gods who in turn must report to him. His main purpose is to monitor the heavenly administration. Every year he observes the performance of all the gods. Based on their performance Yu-huang gives out rewards or promotions, and punishments or demotions. 27
      Yuan-shih T'ien-tsun -- The First Principle is believed that Yuan-shih T'ien-tsun existed before the creation of the universe. In contrast to the universe which is in a constantly changing state of creation and destruction, Yuan-shih T'ien-tsun is eternal and imperishable. When a new creation of the universe occurs, he descends to earth letting mankind know about the secrets of the Tao. He is never worshipped in solitude, but always as the central member of the trinity. 28
      San-ch'ing -- Three Pure Ones. These are the highest deities of Taoism. Pure is referring to the three heavens in which they are believed to live. The Three Pure Ones are said to be different manifestations of Lao-tzu. Their main goal is to save mankind by teaching kindness. The Three Pure Ones are: Yu-ching -- The Jade Pure Shang-ch'ing - - The Higher Pure T'ai-ch'ing -- The Grand Pure. 29
      San-kuan -- Three Officials. The Three Officials are in charge of the three offices of heaven, earth, and the waters under the earth. 30
      San-yuan -- Three Primordials. These are the three supreme deities that "created" the cosmos. 31
      Pa-hsien -- Eight Immortals. The Eight Immortals are a group of legendary figures that are prominent in Taoism. According to popular Taoist lore, the Eight Immortals were selected as distinguished exemplars of world-transcendent, freely wandering sages who had reached their state of human perfection through various practices such as meditation and ascetic life. 32 The Eight Immortals are Chung-li Ch'uan, Ho Hsien-ku, Chang Kou-lao, Lu Tung-pin, Han Hsiang-tzu, Ts'ao Kuo-chiu, Li T'ieh-kuai, and Lan Ts'ai-ho.
      
      
      
      
      
      V. Influence In The West
      
      1. Taoism has influenced people around the world. Today, it is believed that there are 30,000 practicing Taoists in North America. The effects of Taoism can be seen in American culture in various holistic approaches to medicine such as acupuncture and herbalism, certain exercises and martial arts such as Tai-chi, and other art forms such as feng-shui. The Tao of Physics: An Exploration of the Parallels Between Modern Physics and Eastern Mysticism by Fritjof Capra is perhaps one of the most frequently cited texts. Additionally, there has also been a great movement of self improvement and self help books that use Taoism as their main philosophies. Books such as "The Tao of Pooh" and "The Te of Piglet" by Benjamin Hoff have also helped to popularize the main tenets of Taoism and apply them to a western style of living.
         
      
      
      VI. Links to Taoist Web Sites
      
      
      1. Taoism Information Page
         University of Florida scholar Gene Thursby provides access to an abundance of Taoism resources from this page.
         http://www.clas.ufl.edu/users/gthursby/taoism/
         Taoism--History, Beliefs, and Practices
         This link provides a concise summary of the main beliefs and history of Taoism.
         TAOISM
         The Taoist Restoration Society
         "The Taoist Restoration Society is non-profit organization dedicated to the rehabilitation and rebirth of China's Taoist tradition." This site provides a thoughtful look at the Taoist tradition and provides many other resources.
         http://www.taorestore.org
         Encyclopedia Britannica
         The online version of Encyclopedia Britannica provides an brief overview of many of the main tenants of the Taoist tradition.
         Taoism --* Britannica Online Encyclopedia
         Tao Te Ching
         An attractive introduction to the core beliefs by Tao by Jeff Rasmussen, author of The Spirit of Tao Te Ching .
         Images of Taoism
         
         Daoism Depot
         Daoism Depot gives an overview of the Taoist tradition. This site also discusses some related topics such as Feng Shui and Tai Ji Quan.
         Taoism : Daoism Depot : eDepot
         Taoism
         This site provides a translation of the Tao Te Ching as well as the Chuang Tzu. It also provides links to other web sites with information about Taoism and Tai Chi.
         http://www.ii.uib.no/~arnemo/tao/tao.html
         Taoism and the Philosophy of Tai Chi Chuan
         The basic ideas of Tai Chi are explained by way of understanding Taoist basic principles. It briefly explains history, practices, and beliefs. This site also includes links to additional books and web resources.
         Taoism and the Philosophy of Tai Chi Chuan
         Taoism - Ageless Wisdom for A Modern World
         This site aims to give the reader some basic information about the history of Taoism and explain its appeal to the Western world. Taoism - Ageless Wisdom for a Modern World
         Belief Net
         Beliefnet is a for-profit organization that aims to "provide a safe and exciting place to explore your own spiritual path." This site provides basic information as well as other features such as columns, message boards, and audio clips.
         Beliefnet offers features on religion, spirituality, faith, health, prayer, the Bible, holistic lifestyle, and more
         Tao Te Ching
         Translation of the Tao Te Ching by Charles Muler, a Professor in the Humanities Department at Toyo Gakuen University in Chiba, Japan.
         http://www.human.toyogakuen-u.ac.jp/...tao/laotzu.htm
         Yin and Yang
         This site provides some basic information about the concept of Yin and Yang.
         Yin and Yang: Christian Resource Centre (Bermuda)!
         The Major World Religions
         This site provides a brief over view of the major world religions. Taoism is included.
         The major world religions
         Sinophilia Homepage - Religion
         This home page is dedicated to various Chinese traditions including religion, art, history, language, and culture.
         http://www.geocities.com/Tokyo/Palace/1757/taoism.htm
         Taoist Studies in the World Wide Web
         This site thoughtfully organizes links to many different web sites regarding Taoist studies. http://helios.unive.it/~pregadio/taoism.html
         Center for Traditional Taoist Studies
         The focus of this site is to provide the public with "authentic Taoist teachings." It is an online temple that people can join. A person, however, may use the site without becoming a member.
         Tao.org - Taoism resource & Taoist gathering place • Tao Te Ching • Lao Tzu
      
      
      VII. Bibliography
      
      
      1. Chan, Wing-tsit. 1963. "The Way of Lao Tzu, a Translation and Study of the Tao Te Ching." Indianapolis, New York: Bobbs-merrill.
         Ch'u, Ta-Kao. 1937. "Tao Te Ching: A New Translation." London, New York: The Buddhist Lodge.
         Cooper, J.C. 1981. "Yin and Yang: The Taoist Harmony of Opposites." Wellingborough: Aquarian Press.
         Clarke, J.J. 2000. "The Tao of the West." New York: Routledge Taylor and Francis Group.
         Graham, A.C. 1981. "Chuang-Tzu: The Seven Inner Chapters." London: George Allen & Unwin.
         Hoff, Benjamin. 1983. "The Tao of Pooh." New York: Penguin Books.
         Kaltenmark, Max. 1969. "Lao Tzu and Taoism." Stanford: Stanford University Press.
         Kohn, Livia. 1998. "God of the Dao: Lord Lao in History and Myth." Ann Arbor: Center for Chinese Studies, The University of Michigan.
         Levinson, David. 1996. "Religion A Cross Cultural Encyclopedia." New York: Oxford University Press.
         Occhiogrosso, Peter. 1991. "The Joy of Sects." New York: Doubleday. Young, William A.
         Pas, Julian F. 1998. "Historical Dictionary of Taoism." Lanham: The Scarecrow Press, Inc.
         Sharma, Arbind. 1993. "Our Religions." San Francisco: Harper Collins Publishers.
         Smith, Huston. 1991. "The World's Religions: Our Great Wisdom Traditions." San Francisco: Harper Collins Publishers.
         Young, William A. 1995. "The World's Religions." Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall.
         
         
         
         
         
         Footnotes
         
         
         
         
         2. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p195.
         3. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p 87-89.
         4. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p 141-143.
         5. TAOISM
         6. Levinson, David. Religion A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia p 245.
         7. Taoism TAOISM
         8. Levinson, David. Religion A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia p 245.
         9. Levinson, David. Religion A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia p 245.
         10. Levinson, David. Religion A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia p 245.
         11. Taoism TAOISM
         12. Taoism http://www.taorestore.org/
         13. Taoism TAOISM
         14. Levinson, David. Religion A Cross-Cultural Encyclopedia p 245.
         15. Sharma, Arvind. Our Religions p 231.
         16. Taoism TAOISM
         17. Kaltenmark, Max. Lao Tzu and Taoism p 22.
         18. Young, William A. The World's Religions p 188.
         19. Young, William A. The World's Religions p 189.
         20. Young, William A. The World's Religions p 189.
         21. Taoism --* Britannica Online Encyclopedia
         22. Sharma, Arvind. Our Religions p 231.
         23. Taoism --* Britannica Online Encyclopedia
         24. Sharma, Arvind. Our Religions p 231.
         25. Taoism --* Britannica Online Encyclopedia
         26. Young, William A. The World's Religions p 190.
         27. Young, William A. The World's Religions p 190.
         28. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p 184-185.
         29. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p 373-374.
         30. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p 117-119.
         31. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p 338-339.
         32. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p 117-119.
         33. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p 334-335.
             
         34. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p 117-119.
         35. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p 337-338.
         36. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p 117-119.
         37. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p 117-119.
         38. Pas, Julian F. Historical Dictionary Of Taoism p 117-119.
         1. 
            
            [source]

[Arthur Gordon Pym]

HINDUISM

A general introduction


Name of the religion:


This religion is called:

Sanatana Dharma, "eternal religion," and
Vaidika Dharma, "religion of the Vedas," and
Hinduism -- the most commonly used name in North America. Various origins for the word "Hinduism" have been suggested: It may be derived from an ancient inscription translated as: "The country lying between the Himalayan mountain and Bindu Sarovara is known as Hindusthan by combination of the first letter 'hi' of 'Himalaya' and the last compound letter 'ndu' of the word `Bindu.'" Bindu Sarovara is called the Cape Comorin sea in modern times. 1
It may be derived from the Persian word for Indian.
It may be a Persian corruption of the word Sindhu (the river Indus)
It was a name invented by the British administration in India during colonial times.

Early history of Hinduism:

Beliefs about the early development of Hinduism are currently in a state of flux:

The classical theory of the origins of Hinduism traces the religion's roots to the Indus valley civilization circa 4000 to 2200 BCE. The development of Hinduism was influenced by many invasions over thousands of years. The major influences occurred when light-skinned, nomadic "Aryan" Indo-European tribes invaded Northern India (circa 1500 BCE) from the steppes of Russia and Central Asia. They brought with them their religion of Vedism. These beliefs mingled with the more advanced, indigenous Indian native beliefs, often called the "Indus valley culture.". This theory was initially proposed by Christian scholars in the 19th century. Their conclusions were biased by their pre-existing belief in the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament). The Book of Genesis, which they interpreted literally, appears to place the creation of the earth at circa 4,000 BCE, and the Noahic flood at circa 2,500 BCE. These dates put severe constraints on the date of the "Aryan invasion," and the development of the four Veda and Upanishad Hindu religious texts. A second factor supporting this theory was their lack of appreciation of the sophisticated nature of Vedic culture; they had discounted it as primitive. 2 The classical theory is now being rejected by increasing numbers of archaeologists and religious historians. The originators of the theory were obviously biased by their prior beliefs about the age of the earth and the biblical story of the flood of Noah.
Emerging theory: The Aryan Invasion view of ancient Indian history has been challenged in recent years by new conclusions based on more recent findings in archaeology, cultural analysis, astronomical references, and literary analysis. Archaeologists, including Jim Schaffer and David Frawley, have established convincing arguments for this new interpretation. 3 Archaeological digs have revealed that the Indus Valley culture lasted from about 3500 to 1800 BCE. It was not "destroyed by outside invasion, but...[by] internal causes and, most likely, floods." The "dark age" that was believed to have followed the Aryan invasion may never have happened. A series of cities in India have been studied by archaeologists and shown to have a level of civilization between that of the Indus culture and later more highly developed Indian culture, as visited by the Greeks. Finally, Indus Valley excavations have uncovered many remains of fire altars, animal bones, potsherds, shell jewelry and other evidences of Vedic rituals. "In other words there is no racial evidence of any such Indo-Aryan invasion of India but only of a continuity of the same group of people who traditionally considered themselves to be Aryans...The Indo-Aryan invasion as an academic concept in 18th and 19th century Europe reflected the cultural milieu of the period. Linguistic data were used to validate the concept that in turn was used to interpret archeological and anthropological data." 2 "There was no invasion by anyone." 7

During the first few centuries CE, many sects were created, each dedicated to a specific deity. Typical among these were the Goddesses Shakti and Lakshmi, and the Gods Skanda and Surya.

Sacred texts:

Hindu sacred texts are perhaps the most ancient religious texts still surviving today. Some appear to be millennia older than the Hebrew Scriptures (Old Testament) which conservative Christians date to circa 1500 BCE and liberal scholars date to circa 900 BCE.

The primary sacred texts of Hinduism are the Vedas: the Rig Veda, Sama Veda, Yajur Veda and Atharva Veda. The Vedas contain hymns, incantations, and rituals from ancient India. 4 The Rig Veda (a.k.a. Rigveda) may be the oldest of the four. Estimates of its date of composition in oral form range from 1500 BCE to 4000 BCE. The Yajur and Atharva Vedas refer to the vernal equinox having occurred in the Pleiades constellation -- an event dating from about 2500 BCE.

The date when the Vedas were placed in written form is unknown. Various dates from 600 to after 300 BCE have been suggested.

The Upanishadas deal with Vedic philosophy and form the conclusions of each of the Vedas. "They elaborate on how the soul (Atman) can be united with the ultimate truth (Brahman) through contemplation and mediation, as well as the doctrine of Karma-- the cumulative effects of a persons' actions." 4An important text is the Ramayana. Various sources have dated it to: The first century CE in written form, based on oral traditions dating back six or seven centuries earlier. 4
4th century BCE in written form, based on oral traditions dating back to 1500 BCE. 6
4000 BCE in oral form, based on astronomical constellations and other features mentioned. 6It is "a moving love story with moral and spiritual themes that has deep appeal in India to this day" 6 concerning the exploits of the hero Rama who is viewed as an avatar of Vishnu, and as "...a principal deity in his own right." 7 The written form has been attributed to the poet Valmiki.
The Mahabharata is a group of books attributed to the sage Vyasa. They have been variously dated as having been composed between 540 and 300 BCE, between 200 BCE and 2000 CE, the to the 15th century BCE. They record "the legends of the Bharatas, one of the Aryan tribal groups." The Bhagavad Gita is the sixth book of the Mahabharata. It is a poem describing a conversation between a warrior Arjuna and the God Krishna. It is an ancient text that has become a main sacred text of Hinduism and other belief systems.
Other texts include the Brahmanas, the Sutras, Puranas, and the Aranyakas.
Many of these sacred texts are available online. 4 One web site has a search engine available. 5

Hindu beliefs and practices:

Categorizing the religion of Hinduism is somewhat confusing:

Hinduism has commonly been viewed in the west as a polytheistic religion - one which worships multiple deities: gods and goddesses. Although a widespread belief, this is not particularly accurate.
Some have viewed it as a monotheistic religion, because it recognizes only one supreme God: the panentheistic principle of Brahman, that all reality is a unity. The entire universe is seen as one divine entity who is simultaneously at one with the universe and who transcends it as well.
Some view Hinduism as Trinitarian because Brahman is simultaneously visualized as a triad -- one God with three persons:

Brahma the Creator who is continuing to create new realitiesVishnu, (Krishna) the Preserver, who preserves these new creations. Whenever dharma (eternal order, righteousness, religion, law and duty) is threatened, Vishnu travels from heaven to earth in one of ten incarnations.
Shiva, the Destroyer, is at times compassionate, erotic and destructive.
Strictly speaking, most forms of Hinduism are henotheistic; they recognize a single deity, and recognizes other gods and goddesses as facets, forms, manifestations, or aspects of that supreme God.

Most urban Hindus follow one of two major divisions within Hinduism:

Vaishnavaism: which generally regards Vishnu as the ultimate deity
Shivaism: which generally regards Shiva as the ultimate deity.

However, many rural Hindus worship their own village goddess or an earth goddess. She is believed to rule over fertility and disease -- and thus over life and death. The priesthood is less important in rural Hinduism: non-Brahmins and non-priests often carry out ritual and prayer there.

Hindus believe in the repetitious Transmigration of the Soul. This is the transfer of one's soul after death into another body. This produces a continuing cycle of birth, life, death and rebirth through their many lifetimes. It is called samsara. Karma is the accumulated sum of ones good and bad deeds. Karma determines how you will live your next life. Through pure acts, thoughts and devotion, one can be reborn at a higher level. Eventually, one can escape samsara and achieve enlightenment. Bad deeds can cause a person to be reborn as a lower level, or even as an animal. The unequal distribution of wealth, prestige, suffering are thus seen as natural consequences for one's previous acts, both in this life and in previous lives.

Hindus organize their lives around certain activities or "purusharthas." These are called the "four aims of Hinduism," or "the doctrine of the fourfold end of life." They are:
The three goals of the "pravritti," those who are in the world, are:
dharma: righteousness in their religious life. This is the most important of the three.
artha: success in their economic life; material prosperity.kama: gratification of the senses; pleasure; sensual, sexual, and mental enjoyment.The main goal for the "nivritti," those who renounce the world. is:
moksa: Liberation from "samsara." This is considered the supreme goal of mankind.

Meditation is often practiced, with Yoga being the most common. Other activities include daily devotions, public rituals, and puja, a ceremonial dinner for a God.

Hinduism has a deserved reputation of being highly tolerant of other religions. Hindus have a saying: "Ekam Sataha Vipraha Bahudha Vadanti," which may be translated: "The truth is One, but different Sages call it by Different Names"

References:

1. "Origin of 'Hindu'," at: http://www.hindunet.org/
2. David Frawley, "The myth of the Aryan invasion of India," at: http://www.hindunet.org/
3. David Frawley, "Gods, Sages and Kings," Morson Publ, (1991). Read reviews or order this book safely from Amazon.com online book store
4. "Sacred Texts: Hinduism," at: http://www.sacred-texts.com/
5. "Sacred Scripts" has a search engine at: http://www.sacredscripts.org
6. "Ramayana," Manas: India and its neighbors, at: http://www.sscnet.ucla.edu/
7. "Date of the Rigveda," Saksi, at: http://www.vedah.com/org/
8. "Vedic Astronomical Lore," Hindu Books Universe, at: http://www.hindubooks.org/

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