History of Polish-Turkish conflict

[bocian]

Short summary of Polish-Turkish/Tatar conflict:


1497 Turkish-Moldavian Expedition

In 1484 the Ottoman Empire tore from Stephen the Great of Moldavia two strategic ports, Killia at the mouth of the Danube and Akkerman at the mouth of the Dniestr, and so approached the borders of Poland and Lithuania. The Crimean Tartars came under Turkish control and became a scourge to the Ruthenian border lands of Poland and Lithuania.

In 1492 King Kazimierz died and was succeeded

by his eldest son Jan Olbracht (John Albert).

In 1497 a major expedition was organised by the new King to the Black sea with the original intention of recapturing Akkerman and Killia from the Turks. Some 40,000 troops were involved with 200 hundred cannon including two great mortars. But Moldavia now answered to Turkey and the King, though advised by the army's leader to limit the objective to capturing the Moldavian frontier town of Chocim, still wanted to strike at the Turks. He turned against Stephen to protect his flank and besieged the capital, Suczawa. The siege was unsuccessful (due at least partly to Hungarian intervention) and a truce was agreed whereby the Polish army would be afforded an unhampered retreat. However Moldavian forces supported by Ottoman troops attacked the Poles at Kozmin in Bokovina defeating them, though with not too great a loss to the Poles. Without the efforts of the Royal Guard or the later assistance of Lithuanian Grand Duke Alexander atthe crossing of the river Prut the situation could have been far worse. Though the defeat had not been serious and the Truce was honorable the result was that Tartar and Turkish invasions increased dramatically.
In 1498 Poland suffered two retaliatory attacks from the Ottomans and a smaller Tartar incursion. Two large Tartar attacks occurred in 1500 and the following year, until a Truce was agreed with Bajazet II.


1506 Tartar Invasion
Attacks continued by Mengli-Girey of the Crimean Tartars, in Spring 1506 they invaded Lithuania with 10,000 men camping at Kleck, near Nieswiez, sending forces to Minsk, Nowogrodek and Lida. Glinski, an experienced commander, was sent with a comparable sized force, including the new hussars and two canons, smashing the encampment and routing the whole Tartar army (5 August 1506).

1512 Tartar Attack

In March 1512, reconnaissance units deduced that the Tartars were preparing a major raid and soon a large force had setup its kos near Busk, some 50km East of Lvov. By the time Polish forces had concentrated the KOs had been raised and the heavily laden Tartars moved East. At Lopusz (28 April 1512) the Polish-Lithuanian forces caught up with them and defeated them, freeing most of the captured. However the Tartars themselves were able in the main to escape intact.


1524 Tartar and Turkish Invasions
In the Summer of 1524 first the Tartars and then the Turks pillaged Volhynia, Podolia and Polish Ruthenia, reaching as far as the rivers San and Bug. Hetman Tarnowski with meagre forces posted them further East than before and managed to prevent the Tartars from continuing any serious incursions into the Polish border lands. However this only diverted them into the less protected Lithuanian lands.


1530-1531 War with Moldavia
Disputes for the throne of Hungary impacted upon Moldavia, once Polish but now Hungarian, which was being pressurised by Turkey. Peter Rares attacked Pokucie which he occupied in 1530. Zygmunt sent Royal Grand Hetman Tarnowski, with 4,800 cavalry, 1,200 infantry and 12 cannon, on a campaign to remove the Moldavians. At Gwozdziec he defeated a force of 6,000 and while returning home was surrounded by a 50,000 with 50 cannon at Obertyn (22 September 1531). Using the tabor to superb effect Tarnowski swept them from the field.


Tartar attacks
In July 1589 Tartars invaded Lvov and Tarnopol, but were driven out and pursued by Cossack forces.
In 1593 Zygmunt III went to Stockholm in an attempt to gain his throne, in his absence the Cossacks stirred up the South by invading Turkish territory and Zamojski was compelled to march against the Crimean tartars and prevent Turkish retaliation.



1595-1600 Wars in Moldavia and Wallachia
In 1595 the Chancellor led a small army of 8,000 veterans into Moldavia, placing Jeremy Mohila, as Poland's vassal. When a combined Turkish-Tartar force attacked them at Cecora, Zamojski withstood a three day siege (17-20 October) and managed to obtain agreement from the Turks of the Treaty of Cecora, thereby recognising Mohila as Hospodar.


Conflict with Turkey
In 1615 powerful Polish Magnates attempted to install their candidate in Moldavia. Their initial success caused the Ottomans to stir, sending an force to meet the private army of the magnates. After defeating them they approached Poland but met an entrenched Polish army of Zolkiewski at Busza. Neither side wanted war and previous agreements were reaffirmed in 1617.



1618-1621 War with Turkey
The Cossack incursions continued and the Sultan sent a force under Iskander Pasha into Poland. Zolkiewski met them near Kamieniec Podolski and on 28th September 1618 drove them back with heavy losses. The Busza agreement was reaffirmed while the Poles expanded the Cossack register and increased the annual subsidy to them in an attempt to maintain their loyalty to the crown and to stop their attacks on Turkey. But these volatile frontiersmen did not remain loyal for long and opened negotiations with Muscovy.
The 30 years war had begun and although Zygmunt sympathised with the Hapsburgs he was forbidden by the Sejm to send Polish assistance. Instead he arranged private recruitment through his own purse and a large force of Poles and Cossack adventurers crushed Bethlen Gabor's forces in November 1619 and raised the siege of Vienna. Unfortunately this unofficial aid to the Hapsburgs in Transylvania and Hungary drew Poland into conflict with Turkey, and the Hapsburgs were not going to provide any help in return.
A Turkish army invaded Moldavia to remove the Hospodar Gratiani, who had Polish sympathies, and he appealed for Polish assistance declaring he would provide 25,000 of his own forces. In early September 1620 the Royal Grand and Field Hetman's Zolkiewski and Koniecpolski assembled 8,000 men and marched south, however when Gratiani arrived he had but 600 men. At Cecora (18 September to 6th October 1620), on the river Prut, Zolkiewski met the 22,000 strong Moslem army of Iskanderbasha, withstanding repeated attacks during September 1620. On 29th September he ordered a retreat and for 8 difficult days discipline held despite enemy attacks. On approaching the Polish border discipline of much of the army melted and the small force was cut to pieces. Zolkiewski was killed and his head sent to the Sultan, while Koniecpolski was captured.
The following year a massive Turkish army of over 100,000 men invaded Poland, led by Sultan Osman II. However the disaster at Cecora finally aroused the Polish nobles and a large force was assembled. The 25,000 Poles and 20,000 Zaporozhian Cossacks led by Chodkiewicz and Lubomirski were besieged at Chocim (2 September to 9 October 1621). After over 40,000 losses the Turks gave up and returned home. Polish losses were also high and included Chodkiewicz. An honorable peace was agreed based upon Busza.


1624 Tartar Attack
In June 1624 an invading Tartar czambul setup its kos near Przemysl and commenced its raids on the locality. Small Polish forces did their best to limit the Tartars attacks and in mid June, as larger forces were gathering against them the Tartars began their return. On 19th June 1624 they were caught by Koniecpolski as they crossed the Dniestr near Martynow and the next day they were decisively defeated.


1632-1633
War with Tartars and Turks
During the Muscovite war Tartar incursions had struck in 1632 and 1633. Grand Royal Hetman Koniecpolski defeated a force at Sasowy Rog in July 1633 and in October he successfully withstood a combined Turkish-Tartar force at Kamieniec Podolski.


1644 Tartar Attack
A major Tartar incursion in 1644 was met by Koniecpolski near Ochmatow (30 January 1644) as it entered Polish territory and was decisively defeated. It was the most complete defeat of the Tartars by anyone up till that time and was the more spectacular because it was a fresh unladen Tartar army that had been crushed.


1648 to 1655
The First Cossack War
In 1648 the Cossacks rebelled again. This time they had a leader equal to the task in Chmielniecki. On news of the disturbances in the Sich Polish commander Nicholas Potocki set out for the Ukraine and in February 1648 he camped at Korsun. He sent part of his force (3-3,500) comprising regular troops and registered Cossacks to meet Chmielniecki (10,000), which they did at Zlote Wody (Yellow Waters).
For the first time the Cossacks had allied themselves with the Tartars and together they formed a formidable fighting force. The mainly Cossack infantry now had a superb mobile cavalry arm while the solely cavalry Tartars had the assistance of the Cossacks defensive firepower. The Poles on the other hand lacked a commander of the stature of the recently deceased Koniecpolski.
At Zlote Wody the registered Cossacks deserted the Royal army and in the ensuing confusion the remaining forces were destroyed on 15th May 1648. Eleven days later the main Polish army was defeated at Korsun and as news spread of these victories the whole of the Ukraine rose in rebellion.

When he was most needed, the much respected, King Wladyslaw IV died and with the Royal commanders captured or killed, Poland was without a leader.

Fortunately for Poland Chmielniecki delayed while he organised his forces and his country, while the booty laden Tartars returned home. In September 1648 Chmielniecki moved further into Poland. With both Hetman's Potocki and Kalinowski captured, the Polish forces, though substantial, were ill disciplined and badly led by a group of three and defeated at Pilawce (10 to 23 October 1648). The improvised cavalry failed to make any impression on the masses of Cossack infantry supported by the skillful Tartars. The few regular infantry which had survived Zlote Wody and Korsun (King's guard regiment and 'Wybraniecka' infantry) did however acquit themselves well, defending the river crossings with great courage before being overwhelmed. It was a great material and morale catastrophe, and a pathetic military display. One Cossack commander noted "these were not the Poles we knew, the victors over the Turks and Muscovites, of Tartars and Germans, but cowards and rabbits, children clad in steel. They died of fright when they saw us". Chmielniecki then besieged Lvov and after receiving a ransom moved on to Zamosc, but the impregnable fortress held and the Cossacks returned home for the winter.
Large numbers of peasants joined the Cossack army and with the Tartars they ravaged the land 'with fire and sword' slaughtering nobles, Polish or Ruthenian, priests and nuns and Jews in their thousands. The Tartars taught their Cossack allies many lessons in cruelty including the Moldavian custom of impaling alive, which was carried out with relish by Cossacks and Poles alike. No one was in control on either side and the whole region degenerated into mindless violence and cruelty.

In Warsaw Jan Kazimierz (John Casimir) half-brother of

Wladyslaw was elected King.

The coronation Sejm of 1649 enlarged the standing army, placing its financing partly on provinces of Poland and ended the registering of Cossacks. In June 1649 the Cossacks recommenced military operations when their Tartar allies returned. Polish forces retreated to the fortified camp of Zbaraz (10 July to 25 August 1649) where a relatively small force of some 9,000 Polish troops held back the entire might of Chmielniecki and the Khan for over six weeks. The new king moved to assist but was met by Chmielniecki's main forces in a hard and indecisive two day battle at Zborow (15-16 August 1649). The Poles succeeded in buying off the Khan and with Lithuanian forces operating in the East a truce was reached which included a general amnesty.


The Second Cossack War
Chmielniecki spent the next year maintaining the peace while making preparations for the inevitable continuation of war. He managed to raise an army of over 100,000 Cossacks had political support from Turkey and military support from the Crimean Tartars. He also hoped his rebellion, which had taken over the Ukraine, would spread to the peasants in Poland. The Sejm agreed to the raising of a 36,000 Royal and 15,000 Lithuanian army, giving the King the authority to raise the levy. While Polish forces were concentrating Hetman Kalinowski managed to loose half of his 12,000 force in operations to shield the main army.
In June 1651 the Khan Islam Giereja rejoined the Cossacks and together they marched at the Polish forces. At the three day battle of Beresteczko (28 to 30 June 1651) the Royal army (27,000 mercenaries and 30,000 noble levy) achieved a decisive victory and the Cossack-Tartar army (60-80,000 Cossacks and 20-30,000 Tartars) retreated back to the Dniepr. Again the noble levy cavalry showed their poor discipline with the infantry saving the day and then ensuring a decisive defeat was inflicted on the enemy. After the battle the noble levy, deciding their duty was completed, dispersed while the remaining forces moved towards the Ukraine and joined up with the equally victorious Lithuanian army. Hetman Kalinowski, with complete victory within his grasp agreed to a truce. Peace was agreed in September at Biala Cerkiew, however it was even less successful than that agreed at Zborow. The Poles carried out punitive expeditions against the Ukraine while Chmielniecki punished with death the leaders of peasant riots.
In 1652 the Great Cossack Council renewed hostilities with Poland and sent envoys to the Tsar and Khan for assistance. On 2 June 1652 Hetman Kalinowski attempted to head off Chmielniecki's move to Moldavia but was defeated at Batoh. After the battle the Cossacks paid the Tartars to give them their share of the prisoners so that they could be killed, amoungst the dead was the brother of the future King Jan Sobieski, Marek. After a short vain siege of Kamieniec Podolski the Cossack-Tartar army returned home to seek further allies.
Batoh led to a new 36,000 army with a much-reorganised financial base, making forces easier to raise and maintain, the Kwarta tax was used to maintain the artillery and fortifications. New financing gave the name 'computed' for the regular army. The noble levy remained as a last resort and there were periodic mobilisations and exercises. Although the new system was by no means perfect it gave the Commonwealth a powerful army and was a natural evolution from a mainly mercenary to standing army.
The Cossack wars continued and on 18th January 1654 Chmielniecki submitted the Ukraine to the 'Tsars hand' and Muscovy invaded Poland and Lithuania. This was in violation of the Treaty of 1634 and Jan Kazimierz sent deputations to the Sultan and the Khan for assistance against the Tsar. The Ottomans allowed a Tartar alliance with the Poles, while the Sejm of June 1654 raised noble levies of 35,000 for Poland and 18,000 for Lithuania.

The Turkish and Tartar Wars

1667-1676
In August 1667 Fietr Deroszenke and Khan Girej led some 20-30,000 Cossacks and Tartars in an attack on Poland. After the end of the war with Muscovy the Polish army had been reduced to 14,000 men, while the Sejm did not believe the Tartars had altered their previously allied stance. Only the new Field Hetman Sobieski had forces, mainly personally funded, of 8,000 regular and levy troops to deal with the invasion.
In an attempt to curb the Tartar ravaging, Sobieski introduced a new tactic. Previously when the enemy's numbers were so superior the army was placed in a single fortified camp in a strategic position. It's main problem was it allowed the Tartars complete freedom to carry out their ravaging of the surrounding lands. Sobieski split his forces into small independent groups, each based at one of a line of forts and supported by the local population. These forces could hamper the operation of the numerous but small Tartar raiding parties, and when threatened by a larger force it could seek refuge in the fort.
Sobieski took 3,000 troops to a fortified camp at Podhajce, threatening the enemy's communication lines, and was besieged. The initial Tartar-Cossack attacks failed and a Polish night attack forced the numerically much superior enemy to agree to a truce and retreat.

On 16th August 1668 Jan Kazimierz, a broken man after Matwy and then the death of his wife, resigned the crown and soon left for France.

A year later on 29th September 29 year old Prince Michael Wisniowiecki, a Pole from an illustrious family (Piast), was crowned King.

But the Podhajce agreement brought only a brief respite. The Cossacks now submitted to the Sultan as they tried to play the Muscovites, Turks and Poles against each other. Soon, in July 1671 the Cossacks besieged Biala Cerki while the Tartars moved into Podole, now supported by the Ottomans.

Sobieski, with only weak forces repeated his very successful tactics of the previous year and led two attacks which broke the new Cossack-Tartar offensive. He led a 150 mile raid capturing many strongholds and by mid-October much of the Ukraine was subdued. Had he had some support, much of the lands. effectively lost since 1648, could have been regained. Instead Sobieski was forced to return and the Ukraine rebelled again.




In August 1672 the Turks entered the conflict proper. An army of 80,000 crossed the Dniestr and besieged Kamieniec Podolski, which although it was an old fort with a small garrison it was in a naturally powerful defensive position quite capable of withstanding a long siege. The weak commander, however capitulated after only seven days. The Turks devastated Pokucie and moved on towards Lvov, which was poorly defended. In the Sejm King Michael was having problems with the nobles and no new forces were forthcoming. All the king could do was send commissars to sue for peace with the Sultan.
On the 26th of August the Tartars reached Lvov. Sobieski too weak to aid Lvov began his famous 'raid on the czambuls' (Tartar army). With 2,500-3,000 cavalry and dragoons he traveled some 450 Km in nine days (5-14 October 1672), and with the help of local peasants defeated two large and a number of smaller tartar forces, totaling some 20,000 men, and releasing 44,000 prisoners! His aim had been to reduce the Tartar ravaging and improve Poland's bargaining position in the peace talks. Although it was a brilliant success it could not make up for losses elsewhere and did not effect the shameful Buczacz agreement, which gave up a large slice of the Ukraine to Turkey and required Poland to pay a tribute. Only now did the nobles realise the seriousness of the situation.
This treaty, at last, awoke the nobles of the Sejm who would not ratify the treaty and agreed to a massive expansion of the army. The actual forces were fewer than proposed but resulted in 37,250 troops with 65 cannons.

In Lvov on the 11th November 1673 the King died.

In 1673 the Turks prepared to defend their gains leaving three main forces 30,000 men at Chocim, 10,000 at Kamieniec Podolski and 15,000 at Jassam (capital of Moldavia). Sobieski decided to destroy the largest force, slicing through their communication lines and the turning on Chocim. The Turks held the Chocim castle which had been strengthened since the Poles and Cossacks successfully defended it against the Turks in 1621. Sobieski with 30,000 men attacked on arrival but failed to break in, his forces then waited throughout the bitterly cold night forcing the enemy to stay at the ready. As dawn broke the Poles attacked, surprising the Turks, and with close artillery support the dragoons and infantry forced their way into Chocim castle. They then cleared a way through the debris for the cavalry, who burst into the Turkish camp. The victory was decisive and complete. In an attempt to capitalise on this victory Sobieski invaded Moldavia and the Turks at Jassam retreated as the Poles approached. However Sobieski was seriously hampered by the Lithuanian Hetman Pac, who soon left to return home with his forces, while distance from home and low pay dramatically increased desertions.

On news of the King's death Sobieski returned to Poland leaving garrisons in the major strongholds. In January 1674 new Turkish forces evicted the Poles from Moldavia and also broke the blockade on Kamieniec Podolski, which was close to capitulation.

In mid 1674 the Turks directed their main attack towards the Muscovite army in the Ukraine. Jan III Sobieski decided to take advantage of the situation and attack the enemy in the rear. Unfortunately an early attack by part of his forces warned the Turks who made a hasty retreat. In October Polish forces aided by the local Ukrainian population recaptured all of the Ukrainian strongholds, except for the well defended fortress of Kamieniec Podolski.

In 1675 a 200,000 strong Turkish army crossed the Dniestr and captured a series of strongholds. The Poles were mobilising slowly at Lvov and Sobieski repeated his tactics of 1667 in order to gain valuable time. In mid August the Turks reached Zborow and the Turkish commander, realising Sobieski's problem sent a 20,000 strong czambul to disrupt the Poles. At the Battle of Lvov (24 August 1675) Sobieski, with 5,000, crushed the Tartars and destroyed them in a vigorous pursuit. With the advance of the concentrated Polish army (32,000), the Turkish army turned back from its advance on Lvov destroying Pomarzan and Podhajce on the way. At Trembowl (defended by Jan Samuel Chrzanowski with 80 dragoons and 200 townsmen) the Turkish attacks were repulsed inflicting on them heavy losses and when Sobieski approached and threatened their rear the Turks retreated.
Sobieski planned to bring the war to adecisive end in 1676, but the large army he forced through the Sejm could not be raised, due to the lack of funds. The Turks invaded again, but were held back at the fortified camp at Zurawno (25 September to 14 October 1676). After three weeks of attacks the Turks (16,000 with 77 canon) and Tartars (30,000) gave up and agreed to a truce. While only a fraction of the 8,000 Polish forces had been involved in the fighting. The truce ended the long war and although Turkey retained a substantial part of the Ukraine large numbers of Polish prisoners were released.


1683 Campaign
The war in 1683 was a coalition of Christian countries, with Poland allied to the Emperor and the Papacy. Turkey was close to capturing Vienna as the Poles approached. Sobieski was given command of the allied army (29,500 Austrians, 18,000 Imperialists and 27,000Poles) and his plan was to hem in the Ottoman army and pin it against the Danube and Vienna's walls. He did not only want to defeat the Turks, because this would bring little advantage to Poland, but he aimed at destroying them. Sobieski divided the army into three columns several days before the battle, as it sped towards Vienna to catch the Turks unawares. The left column moved along a road next to the Danube, while the other two columns' approach was slower along the mountain roads. As the left and centre columns tied up the main Turkish forces in battle, the mainly Polish cavalry right column charged onto the Turks aiming to cut off their escape. The battle of Vienna\'s (12 September 1683) result did not meet Sobieski's aim, as due to the large size of the allied army and the difficult terrain, the right column could not get enough distance between itself and the main body of the army and the enemy perceived the manoeuvre, though their only defence against the encirclement lay in retreat which soon turned to rout. The victory made the allies overconfident and Sobieski was caught in an attack on the Polish advance guard at Parkany. It was a shameful defeat since the attack succeeded as far as the Polish infantry and German cavalry, breaking through even the hussars, and Sobieski was almost killed. However two days later the triumphant Turks fought the second battle of Parkany (9 October 1683) with a river to their rear. The allies crushed them and Sobieski felt that this victory was greater than that at Vienna.


1686 Moldavian Campaign
In July 1686 Sobieski set out with a force of 40,000 to Moldavia, on the 16 August he reached Jassam, but the Turks avoided battle and provisions and water was scarce. When in the capital a large quantity of munitions caught fire and much of the city was burned, the Poles had no other choice but to return.


1691 Moldavian Campaign
In 1691 a second Moldavian campaign was undertaken, though it was similar to the first with an evasive enemy and arid weather. There were some modest gains, but Sobieski succumbed to an illness a 'germ of death' which he could not recuperate from.


http://www.jasinski.co.uk/wojna/conflicts/conf01.htm

[Alfred P.]

One can only hope that the European Union will not make these efforts of generations of our ancestors futile by admitting Turkey.

Nations do change, but Turkey of today is no more European than it was for 400 years ago and certainly no more close to our hearts than Egypt.

Let´s pray....

[marius]

There are some points in your post over the history on which the Romanian history and historians do not at all agree.

Concerning the fight in Cosmin Forrests (your Kozmin), Stephen the Great completely defeat the invading Poles without any Turkish help. I mean this Moldavian prince was the biggest Turkish enemy. How can some low level historians classify him like a sort of Turkish friend?

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_cel_Mare

The problem Romanian princes always had is the fact the Poles and the Hungarian kings always promised help against Turks and never did anything.

Anyway, I would not have expected such an error from an user of your level, Bocian.

[bocian]

Originally Posted by marius

There are some points in your post over the history on which the Romanian history and historians do not at all agree.

Concerning the fight in Cosmin Forrests (your Kozmin), Stephen the Great completely defeat the invading Poles without any Turkish help. I mean this Moldavian prince was the biggest Turkish enemy. How can some low level historians classify him like a sort of Turkish friend?

Source: http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_cel_Mare

The problem Romanian princes always had is the fact the Poles and the Hungarian kings always promised help against Turks and never did anything.

Anyway, I would not have expected such an error from an user of your level, Bocian.

Everything I have read about Kozmin is that it was a Polish defeat at the hands of Moldavian, Turkish, Tatar, and Wallachian forces led by Stefan. Actually, the number of Moldavians was supposedly less than 20,000, with Turks, Tatars and Wallachs outnumbering them to create a force of over 40,000.

Poland was ready to help Moldavia against the Turks, yet it was Stefan who betrayed them...hence the coalition which would have been was cancelled.

Stop with the 'Poland never did anything'.

[marius]

Originally Posted by bocian

Everything I have read about Kozmin is that it was a Polish defeat at the hands of Moldavian, Turkish, Tatar, and Wallachian forces led by Stefan. Actually, the number of Moldavians was supposedly less than 20,000, with Turks, Tatars and Wallachs outnumbering them to create a force of over 40,000.

Ok, this is not what I sustain and many historians, of course, but not the Hungarian ones and it seems not the Polish ones either. If the Pope called him "the Athelete of Christ", to be honest, I do not think Hungarian historians who denigrate him and everything which is Romanian, just because they are sorrow for losing a land they conquered by force, Tranyslvania, are more right into this. Just look over the links I provided below.

Stephen the great and his Successors :

Stefan cel Mare (Stephen the Great) (1457-1504), the prince of Moldavia, was the one who continued the opposition fight. He was a strong personality, whom the Pope called “the Athlete of Christ”. During his long reign, the prince Stephen made himself conspicuous as an administrator and an organizer of his country and as a military head as well. He also developed a very skilful diplomatic activity and knew how to impose his personality to his contemporaries. At the beginning of his reign, he had conflicts with the king Mathias, whom he defeated at Baia, on the occasion of the latter’s inroad on the Moldavian land (1467). By refusing to pay the tribute to the sultan, a fact his predecessor had agreed in the year 1456, Stephen commenced a series of wars against the Ottoman Empire and against the Tartars, its vassals. He won an important victory at Vaslui, in 1475, against an army formed of 120.000 Turks. The following year, he opposed the sultan Mehmet Second himself, whose army pillaged the whole country. Irrespective of that, the prince Stephen could remain on the throne and resume his offensive operations as soon as the Otomans withdrew from the country. His appeals meant to receive the support of Europe practically remained without echo. Two of the most important Moldavian ports and fortresses at the Danube and at the Blak Sea, Chilia and Cetatea Alba, real lungs of the country, were lost in 1484. But this did not prevent the prince from successively defeating the Ottomans in 1485 and 1486. Fracing a difficult situation, Stephen the Great paid his respects to the king Cazimir Fourth of Poland, without however receiving the support he expected. At the end of the 15th century, the prince had the best relationships with the king Mathias of Hungary, but, in 1497, a Polish army reached Moldavia, which Stephen the Great seriously defeated at Codrii Cosminului. At the end of his long reign, the prince came to the conclusion that his country had to reach an agreement with the powerful Ottoman Empire. Owing to the force of circumstances, Moldavia was to apply a compromise solution with the Porte.
But stephen the Great’s reign is not important only due to his acts of bravery, but also because of the capability he proved of assuring the prosperity to a country submitted to the war almost continuously. During his reign, the prince has built strong fortresses, palaces and princely courts, several dozens of monasteries and churches, whose edifices – or at least ruins – still prove the power of the Moldavian State during the reign of this prince. The Romanians’ collective memory kept a special place to this prince. The Romanians fought a fierce resistance struggle, trying to withstand the Ottoman power at the frontiers of Europe. Nevertheless, in the end, Wallachia first, then Moldavia, as well as Transylvania, since the 16 th century, had to agree with the historical compromise solution with the Porte. Being, for the Middle Ages, a real model of bilateral understanding able to assure their survival as States, this compromise also contributed indirectly to the protection of the frontiers of “the other” Europe, by means of these buffer-States. Both wallachia and Moldavia were obliged to accept the suzerainty of the sultan and to pay tribute. But, in this way, the two principalities could preserve their state existence uninterruptedly, being the only ones in the area. The other Christian States of the area, including the powerful kingdoms of Hungary and Poland, had to interrupt their existence, at a certain moment, one after another. They could also maintain their reigning princes and their nobility, as well as defend their faith, as the Ottomans accepted not to build mosques on the Romanian territory. Through their existence itself, these principalities contributed to the delay of the Muslims’ advance towards the centre of the continent.
Since the 16th century, especially since its second half, the Ottomans started not to observe the right of the country to choose its reigning prince any more. Consequently, many times, the Porte used to make direct nominations. Moreover, they were the result of the quota of the amounts that the candidates had paid to it and to its dignitaries. Several outstanding princes were mentioned, peculiarly in Moldavia, during this century. Stephen the Great’s immediate successors, his son Bogdan, his nephew, bearing the same name as his grand-father and his illegitimate son Petru Rares (Peter Rares) made themselves conspicuous as important personalities. We also have to emphasize the Moldavian prince Ion Voda cel Cumplit or cel Viteaz (John the Terrible or the Brave)who heroically tempted to gain the independence from the Ottoman Empire, therefore, not to observe the regime of historical compromise achieved by his predecessors. Nevertheless, the two States could avoid being integrated within the sultans’ Empire and, at the same time, they represented a kind of asylum land for the Christians of the Balkans. They also managed to keep and show their faith. It was the moment when the splendid churches painted on the outer walls were built in Moldavia.

Source: http://www.romanii.ro/english/history_of_romania.htm

And everything I ever read about Cosmin Forrests is that exactly Polish forces were defeated in spite of their superior numbers. Turks? Tartars? Commanded by Stephen the Great? Please read :

http://www.romanii.ro/english/history_of_romania.htm

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Stefan_cel_Mare

http://www.bartleby.com/65/st/StphnGrt.html

http://www.east-west-wg.org/cst/cst-mold/stephen.html
(if you look to this one you will find out that the source of your informations are Hungarian historians, just don't enter into this Hungarian-Romanian dispute, taking parts, because you won't get out of it in a good shape, Russians wanted to make both countries in the 1950s members of the Soviet Union because of this).

http://worldheritage.heindorffhus.dk...asteries01.htm

http://www.ici.ro/romania/en/istorie/hi32.html

http://www.eliznik.org.uk/RomaniaHis...ia-history.htm

Originally Posted by bocian

Poland was ready to help Moldavia against the Turks, yet it was Stefan who betrayed them...hence the coalition which would have been was cancelled.

Stop with the 'Poland never did anything'.

No, no, no, it did not happen this way. Each of these foreign violent conquerant states (Turkey, Poland and Hungary) wanted to extend their reign over the Romanian Principates: Moldavia, Wallachia (Mountania) and Transylvania. The Hungarians managed to do it over Transylvania and kept the local Romanians under slavery for long time. The Poles and the Turks behave almost the same way against Moldavia and Wallachia. I do not know why all these three peoples wanted to vanish from the surface of Earth the Romanians... at those times. I hope that today there are no more Turks, Poles or Hungarians who wish the same thing.

So, it is true that the Moldavian, Wallachian and Transylvanian princes not disposing of the same amount of people as the Poles, Hungarians and Turks and being trapped between these three countries, had to do something, using a diverse system of alliances to be able to defend themselves. But even so, in Cosmin Forrests it was only the victory of Stephen the Great of Moldavia against Jan Albert of Poland, in 1497.

[bocian]

All I see is reference to Stefan as a champion against Turks, whch he undoubtedly was.

However, none of the links provides any info concerning Kozmin.

The truth is, Stefan would never have been able to call on a big enough force made up only of Moldavians to defeat the Poles, he needed the help of Tatars and Turks to do it.

By 1497 Moldavia was already paying tribute to the Ottomans and was a vassal of Poland, unofficially it was also a vassal of Hungary... During that time Moldovia was quite succesful playing the 3 surrounding powers against each other as it was the only way for them to have any degree of sovereignity.

[marius]

Originally Posted by bocian

All I see is reference to Stefan as a champion against Turks, whch he undoubtedly was.

However, none of the links provides any info concerning Kozmin.

The truth is, Stefan would never have been able to call on a big enough force made up only of Moldavians to defeat the Poles, he needed the help of Tatars and Turks to do it.

By 1497 Moldavia was already paying tribute to the Ottomans and was a vassal of Poland, unofficially it was also a vassal of Hungary... During that time Moldovia was quite succesful playing the 3 surrounding powers against each other as it was the only way for them to have any degree of sovereignity.

Ok, that's more like it.

Now, I did not find anything in English or Polish or French or German about the fight in Cosmin Forrests. But, I can only tell you the version I learned and I read from Romanian history books. Perhaps it is only a legend, take it as ever you would like.

Now, Stephen knew he would be attacked by the Poles. He intentionally waited for them at Cosmin Forrests and I would like to underline Forests, because he had previously "prepared" with his men, the forest. How? By pre-cutting big trees, by preparing all sorts of traps and so on, which were all unleashed over the much bigger, stronger and better equiped Polish army. This had a good effect, because a lot of Poles felt victimes to this and the fight was "more equal" and that is how he won.

Again, you can treat this as a simple legend, but it seems there are some sources and writting dating from that time about it. I am not a historian and I am not able to offer you more data on it, unfortunately.

But you have to know that usually all Romanians, faught to Turks, Poles, Russians, Hungarians (all the neighbours were powerful, that was life then ) not by using direct confrontations, but using the land and setting a lot of traps before really confronting the enemy. Why? Because we never had enough manpower. Wallachians, Moldavians or Transylvanians were always very few in comparison to much bigger neighbouring powers, whether these powers were named: Turkey, Austria, Poland, Hungary or Russia. And going a bit away from the thread subject for which I apologize, these all three Romanian Principates were always at the border between East and West and the Romanians are even today Western and Eastern in the same time. This is life at border regions, like it or not.