An Introduction to the Sword

[Gil]

Manji's Note: I've always been a fan of swords and swordmanship, having practiced kendo and a bit of fencing. The following article is a brief and light introduction to the history of swords.


An Introduction to the Sword: Part I

The sword is an edged weapon with a long blade designed for delivering cutting blows or thrusts, or both. It first appeared in the prehistoric period; once copper had been mastered, the dagger was fitted with an increasingly longer blade, until it became in effect a short sword. This new weapon was clearly superior for combat at close quarters and, accordingly, led to the decline of the dagger, which took on a secondary, complementary role and remained in use for hand-to-hand combat.

The copper swords had been based on the forms of earlier stone daggers; later, bronze was cast to resemble the copper swords. This new metal easily satisfied the requirements for producing longer swords, and as a result their length increased from 27-31" to more than 35"; the typology also changed, and both long and short swords were manufactured.

The shape of the blade also showed the influence of the dagger and was designed solely for thrusting. The strong central ribbing and the two smaller side rings on both flats gave it total rigidity under the impact of a violent blow. The Mycenaean swords of the second millennium B.C. were likewise designed for delivering thrusts. Little by little the need was felt for swords capable of cutting blows as well, and as a result double-edged swords started to be made with more or less parallel cutting edges and a strong point. Changes in combat techniques obliged craftsmen to solve the problem of fitting the blade to the handle more solidly. As long as the blade was in alignment with the grip, the two or three small nails or rivets which held the two parts of the grip together were sufficient for the task. In the new type of sword, which was to be used for both cutting and thrusting, this join had to be made stronger. This was done by inserting the shoulder of the blade into a specially made slot in the grip and fixing it with several rivets. Another way of making a more reliable weapon was to cast the blade and the tang as a single piece, with the tang fashioned like a handle; this usually involved covering the sides of the tang with small plaques of wood, bone, or other material which was easy to shape and attach with rivets.

The different ways of fashioning the sword did not follow a chronological order in the European sphere; the availability of expensive metal, and the level of mastery of casting it, which gave rise to the many jealously guarded secret, meant that there would be local preferences for one system over another. In the south the bronze swords were decorated on the handles with gold, ivory, and semi-precious stones; in the north there was a preference for decorating the bronze with elaborate engravings. Even in this early period the pommel became an essential part of the grip, and from its original form as a simple projection or swelling it started to take on specific shape depending on its function. In order to protect elaborately made swords, the blade was kept in a sheath made of wood, leather, or sometimes bronze; chapes served to protect the point of the weapon; a metal mouthpiece was added to reinforce the sheath.

The discovery of iron, and how to make it, gave added momentum to the development of the sword, and in one of the same cultural environment swords made of bronze and of iron presented the same form and coexisted for a long period of time. Bronze was a rare material, imported for the most part from regions of the eastern Mediterranean; iron was more common, but it was more complicated to work. The transition from cast bronze to forged iron was neither speedy nor simultaneous in the European region as a whole; for three centuries at least the two techniques existed together, with preferences for one or the other based on the differing economic technical possibilities.

In the Hallstatt culture (900-500 B.C.) swords made of bronze and swords with iron blades coexisted and were modeled after earlier forms. Swords with long, lancet-shaped blades were typical of this culture, these blades had a broader section with the ridge beyond the center of the blade, and ending in a right-angled point. A mushroom-shaped pommel, typical of the culture, surmounted the grip and was often decorated with gold or other precious materials. An iron-bladed example from the Hallstatt tomb still had its magnificent grip made of ivory with carved bands of zigzag patterns and traces of the original coloration. Another grip typical of this culture was the "anthropomorphic" type; the lower limbs, carefully fashioned, were positioned on either side of the blade; the upper limbs, raised above the shoulders, shielded the head; the body formed the actual handle.

The pre-Roman iron swords were similar in form to those in use in the late Bronze Age, with the length in some cases exceeding 40". But as fighting techniques evolved, the Romans developed a preference for the short version of the sword called a gladius, which was better suited to their rigidly arrayed troops, who had to be able maneuver swiftly and with precision. Their "barbarian" foes were for the most part armed with long swords, but the reason for the barbarian victories can be found in their strategic techniques and warrior spirit rather than in any intrinsic superiority of their arms.

In the La Tène culture (from 500 B.C. to the beginning of the Christian era), the somewhat angular lines of the sword blade typical of the Hallstatt culture were softened. The edges of the blades were parallel and the right-angled tip took on an ogival shape. In this period, the sword changed from the elaborate object-cum-weapon into a simple and practical fighting weapon which was lighter and easier to wield. The swords that have survived to this day are all without handles and have a broad double-edged and pointed blade; the only surviving decorative element is around the mouth of the scabbard. This period also saw the addition, near the mouth of the sheath and on the back of it, of a metal ring or loop (through which a carrying strap was passed. Some sheaths of the La Tène period are made entirely of bronze and decorated with engravings. In the last three centuries B.C. the most common sword in the European region was the long Gallic sword of the La Tène culture. Tombs of this period have produced examples of blades, spear, swords, and axes made of iron, found together with weapons made of bronze.

The eventual and definitive supremacy of iron for the manufacture of the sword blades and other arms relegated bronze to being used for accessory parts: grips, sheaths, and the reinforcing mounts for wooded sheaths, which were sometimes covered with hide and fabric. During the Hallstatt culture there had been a gradual lengthening of the sword; during the La Tène period the length was first reduced, then increased once more to between 31-35", as progress in metalworking made it possible to construct lighter and stronger blades. In many instances the craftsmen who made swords impressed on the blade a "trademark" identifying the maker. The malleability of these blades meant that they could be twisted in such a way as to form a spiral or three or four turns without breaking; in fact, in the La Tène period there is evidence of the first examples of this type of metal working, which is called "pattern welding." But the fact that the blade could become deformed on impact often meant that the combatant had to interrupt the fight to straighten the blade, with the help of his foot or with a rock. It was with these swords that the Teutonic and Gallic horsemen who fought against Caesar's legions were armed.

The roman gladius, a development of the Hallstatt sword, had a double-edged blade with a strengthened trip; the grip was ringed, giving the soldier a good hold. The grip was made of wood, ivory, and bone, ending in a sphere-shaped pommel. The gladius was carried on the right side slung from a baldric, which passed over the left shoulder. Although Rome defeated its foes that were armed with the long sword, because its army was so highly disciplined, the Romans nevertheless acknowledged the functional qualities of that weapon when used on horseback; accordingly the Roman cavalry was equipped with a similar sword. When the upper hand was eventually gained by the various Teutonic peoples migrating southward, the gladius, which had barred their passage on so many occasions, was replaced by the long sword, and the dagger by the short sax, which was dated back to the Bronze Age and remained in use up until the Carolingian period.

During the great migrations the sword clearly showed the influence of the type in use in the latter stages of the La Tène culture. It had a broad, double-edged blade and a rather blunt point, and measured between 30-37" in length; a wide shallow fuller ran down the blade in the center of both faces, almost to the point. The handle was shorter, but structurally similar; a small oval metal plate, between the shoulder of the blade and the grip, protected the latter from being damaged against the metal rim of the mouth of the sheath, and at the same time provided a better grip; in addition, because it was somewhat salient, it protected the hand. This in fact marked the beginnings of the guard, the hand-protecting device—although it was no more than embryonic at this stage. A second small plate rounded off the grip at the top, and a point surmounted this. The sword retained these forms in the Meroyingian period; the only modification was a gradual thickening of the plate between the grip and the shoulder of the blade. The handles of these swords were richly decorated with gold and silver inlays. Forging soft and hard steel rods that were bent several times during the process made the blades.

Early narratives and documents have given us the names of various valiant knights and their swords, and sometimes the names of the craftsmen who forged them as well. Siegfried thus carried out his acts of valor with "Balmus"; Roland routed brigands and infidels with his faithful "Durandal," which was made by Madelger of Regendsburg with such skill that when the hero was finally felled during the battle of Roncesvalles, he was unable to break it. In the Chanson de Rolandwe find the following words: "Roland felt that his life was about to end. Summoning his strength he raised himself to his feet. His face was pale. Before him lay a grey rock. With pain and rage he struck the rock ten times with his sword. The steel clashed but neither broke nor splintered." In another passage we find the following description of Charlemagne with his sword: "He was wearing his fine white coat of mail and his helmet with gold-studded stones; by his side hung Joyeuse, and never was there a sword to match it; its color changed thirty times a day. We know well the fate of the lance with which Our Lord was transfixed upon the cross. By the grace of God, Charles possesses the tip, and has had it set in the golden pommel of his sword. Because of this great honor the sword is called Joyeuse." The sword of King Arthur was made on the island of Avalon and was called "Excalibur." If one reads sagas and chansons de geste it is not hard to see the important differences between defensive and offensive arms; all the fights are reduced to a single well-placed blow that overwhelms the foe and pierces his mail, his shield, or his helmet.

In the Carolingian period the various parts of the grip became more defined and specialized in their function; the elongated small oval plate peculiar to the Merovingian period was turned into a small four-sided bar about 4" long, i.e. the guard. The wooden grip ended in a pommel with a rectangular base that was larger and more massive at the center. The form of Carolingian sword clearly show shows that it was an excellent fighting weapon designed for cutting; larger and longer than earlier swords, it measured 37-40", the increase in length, and thus weight, being counterbalanced by a more massive pommel.

At the beginning of the Romanesque period (11th-12th centuries) the sword retained the form of the Carolingian period, but the blade became slightly broader and the name of the maker started to appear in the fuller; the quillions were lengthened; and the pommel—which had been made up of two parts, one flat and the other swelled, and which had been so common among the Nordic peoples—was replaced by a type which was hemispherical or parabolodial in shape. Later, in the latter half of the 12th century, the blade was made broader still; the quillions measured 8-9", although the length varied according to local preferences. In Italy and elsewhere south of the Alps the quillions remained considerably shorter than those found north of the Alps, The pommel, which up until this period had a flat base, now adopted an upward-curving base and took on the form of a clove.

The sword was used in this period solely for delivering cutting blows. The Bayeux Tapestry (1066-77), whose various sequences depict the feats of William the Conqueror at the battle of Hastings, shows all the combatants wielding swords, busily cutting at their adversaries; none of them is making thrusts. In the Hortus delliciarum of the abbess Herrade of Landsperg (Alsace), an illuminated encyclopedia of the second half of the 12th century, almost all the warriors are smashing helmets and breastplates with cutting blows, but some are also thrusting with their swords. After many centuries the sword had reassumed this function and as a result the blade was modified; now it adopted a form which was suited both to thrusting and cutting: the pommel was clove-shaped, the long quillions were fairly flattened at the tips, and the blade was long with a sharp point.

In the Gothic period the sword became a more specialized instrument depending on whether it was to be used on foot or on horseback, or to be carried on parade of in ceremonies. Earlier blades were remounted with new hilts, especially in weapons for troops made up of vassals and peasants. Among these swords the types carried by the 14th-century knight was especially remarkable for its strength, beauty, and harmony of its lines. The sword was some 47" in length, with the blade accounting for almost 40"; the blade was in the form of a long isosceles triangle. The robust hilt was straight, and the pommel, which was larger and heavier than previous types, was polygonal or disc-shaped. This latter form of the pommel became common throughout Europe, although it had variations from country to country. In Italy it was fairly flat or slightly convex when compared with examples from north of the Alps. A knight might well have several swords, according to his preferences and requirements; swords with blades having parallel edges and a point, for cutting, swords with stout triangular- or rhomboid-section blades, for thrusting; and swords designed for both cutting and thrusting. These forms developed as principal local types: in southern and western Europe there was a preference for thrusting weapons; elsewhere on the Continent cutting swords were preferred.

An Introduction to the Sword: Part II



The new battle formations and the important role taken on by the infantry in the 15th and 16th centuries meant that swords were now made for foot soldiers. This sword had a long, double-edged blade with a point, and a grip better protected by the guard than the horseman's sword. Hitherto the sword with a cross-shaped hilt could be held with either of the two cutting edges in the fore; now, however, with the development of the guard and the appearance of arms of the hilt, rings, loops, and knuckle bows, the sword came to have an outer and an inner edge, since it had to be held in a manner predetermined by its hilt. The most specialized swords for combat on foot were the two-handed swords; these huge weapons, wielded by mighty and fearless soldiers, were used in the gray for opening up breaches through the enemy ranks. The horseman's sword, which could be used both on foot and on horseback, could have a long, slender blade or a short, broad blade; its hilt had long, straight, or S-shaped quillions, side rings, arms of the hilt, and a disc-shaped or polygonal pommel. Local types of forms flourished in this period, for example, the schiavona, the sword with an "eared" hilt, and the Katzbalger. Hunting swords and rapiers appeared in all of Europe together with swords that showed the effect of contact with the East, where there was still a preference for cutting weapons, such as the saber.

In the 16th century the thrusting function of the sword became increasingly accentuated. The blades became more rigid, although they still remained broader in northern areas than they were in Italy and Spain; the hilt became a complex web of rings, bows, and bars designed to give the hand the greatest possible protection from the opponent's thrusts. In the 17th century a further effective defensive element developed in the form of two strong shells, either solid or pierced, which complemented the guard. The evolution of the sword's guard now followed a trend that led, in southern Europe toward the middle of the century, to the hand being completely protected by a hemispherical cup guard. It was no coincidence that this type of guard evolved in southern Europe: the Mediterranean countries had always shown a preference for thrusting swords and corresponding swordplay, wherein it was necessary to shield the hand against the long, sharply pointed rapier.

By the end of the 16th century firearms were playing an increasingly effective part on battlefields, and the sword found its role limited more and more to the dueling ground. Specialized swords were made for dueling, and from the end of the 15th century attempts had been made to standardize dueling weapons and the rules of the duel itself. In the first half of the 16th century the first treatise on fencing was published; this manual laid the foundations of the Italian school of fencing which subsequently became prevalent throughout Europe and which, together with the Spanish school, reached a very high level of accomplishment. There is documentary evidence that the custom of wearing the sword with everyday attire appeared in Spain in the 15th century. From Spain the fashion then speared throughout the rest of Europe and until the late 18th century, a distinctive form of nonmilitary sword with a long, rigid blade and a sharp point, known as the rapier and the smallsword, became part of the parcel of the attire of every gentleman as a status symbol. The fact that a man carried his rapier at all times meant that it could be used in a flash for self-defense or to settle a matter of honor.

In military circles, too, the sword was now carried in peacetime out of respect for tradition rather than for more practical reasons, for it had become too cumbersome and heavy compared with weapons regularly used in duels. The sword had come full circle, and a new military sidearm called the dress sword took its place to be worn with uniform in peacetime. The sword as a weapon of war was still widely used in the early 20th century, but later it was issued mostly in versions designed for uniforms, for ceremonial use, or for presentation.

Presentation Sword. A sword of honor offered by sovereigns, princes, popes, associations, and admirers in general as an award or token of recognition to important figures for their achievements in war or political life. The Italian tradition in this respect is very old indeed: the Church had long rewarded princes, military leaders, and anyone else who had distinguished himself in the defense of Christianity with the gift of a papal sword which had been blessed on Christmas Day. Presentation swords were also given to persons admitted as members of the Knighthood of St. Peter, and two of these are now in the Waffensammlung in Vienna.

The custom of awarding a saber, a dress sword, or a smallsword spread in the 18th and 19th centuries to France, England, and America. Presentation swords were invariably elaborate objects worked on by designers, swordmakers, jewelers, and engravers, ending up as nothing less than works of art. The various surviving examples testify clearly to this: for example, the sword offered to King Frederick VII of Denmark (Rosenborg castle in Copenhagen), the sword given to General Lafayette (National Museum of Castel Sant' Angelo in Rome), and those presented to Major General William Scott and General Ricciotti Garibaldi (in private collections).

In Russia, there was an old tradition of the monarch to present a saber with a gold-inlaid dedicatory inscription to selected Coassacks as a reward for bravery and loyalty. In the early 19th century presentation swords for officers of the regular forces were often introduced under the name "Golden Weapon" since the hilt and scabbard mounts were made of gilt bronze. In addition, the hilt was decorated with the motto "For Bravery" and the badge of the Order of St. Anne, with the sword knot on the ribbon either of this order or that of St. George.

Papal sword. A long sword used by popes to reward princes and military commanders for their achievements as "defenders of the faith." The custom of presenting a sword to defenders of Christianity did not occur much before the year 1000. The first papal sword that can be dated with certainty goes back to 1386, when on the morning of Christmas Day, in Luca, Pope Urban VI presented the city's gonfalonier with a papal sword and cap, both duly blessed. From the early 15th through the 17th century this tradition of blessing a papal sword and cap was continued. Few Christmases at the Vatican passed without some prince or general being rewarded with this gift. Leo XII presented the last papal sword in 1823, to the Duke of Angouleme for his successful storming of the Trocader. A subsequent sword, which was never actually presented, is still in the Vatican. Only on one occasion was the papal sword presented to a whole nation rather than to an individual; this was the sword dispatched by Julius II in 1611 to the Swiss Confederation in recognition of the conduct of the Swiss Guard (the pope's bodyguards). This sword is now in the Landesmuseum in Zurich. If one runs through the list of people who received this gift, the historical and political relations between the papacy and the various other powers in Europe emerges clearly.

The manufacture of the papal sword and cap was entrusted to the best artists and craftsmen of the day. The grip was usually cast in solid silver, engraved and gilded and in some cases the pommel bore the insignia of the pope. The broad, two-edged blade usually had a wide fuller in the upper section. With the name of the pope, the year of the papacy, and sometimes an exhortation to fight for Christendom, in addition to the year of presentation, on the forte itself. The wooden scabbard was mounted with embossed and gilded silver and covered in velvet. The papal gift included a special cap as well; this was a large dome-shaped hat embroidered with the figure of a dove—the symbol of the Holy Ghost—and a girdle.

Coronation sword. The sword worn by a sovereign as a symbol of his authority at the investiture or coronation. Charlemagne, who was crowned in Rome on Christmas Day in the year 800 as emperor of the Holy Roman Empire, had his sword buckled to him in St. Peter's Basilica. The sword, with which Frederick II of Swabia was crowned in 1220, again in Rome, is currently in the Schatzkammer in Vienna. The sword used at the coronations of the kings of France, dating back to the 12th century, is now in the Louvre in Paris.

Coronation swords represented the very best products of the goldsmiths, craftsmen, and armorers of the day. Modeled on a sword which had been in active use, the coronation sword had to retain the appearance of the true weapon and these various artisans would set to work on it, expressing the taste of the times with a wide variety of elaborate decorative techniques.

Bearing sword. A weapon carried during public ceremonies to signify the authority of the wearer. This ritual usage was derived from the Byzantine Empire, where an arms-bearer would follow the emperor with an unsheathed sword with the point pointing upward to testify to the emperor's powers. The papal sword given by the pontiff to princes who had fought for Christianity was likewise a bearing sword. A typical ceremony in the Venetian republic, from the end of the 16th to the early 18th century, was the presentation to distinguished persons of a broadsword, which then was displayed during public ceremonies as a symbol of powers bestowed upon them. These large ceremonial swords had a broad blade in the form of an acute isosceles triangle, with a central rib. Venezia (Venice) and Giustizia (Justice), both legible when the point of the weapon was raised upward, were inscribed on the furniture. The hilt was made of cast bronze, gilded and engraved; the scabbard was covered with crimson velvet.

Many two-handed swords became ceremonial bearing weapons when they were no longer used for fighting purposes, and they continued to be made long afterward for their new role. The forms of the blade and the quillions are evidence enough of this: additional elements in the form of curls on the guard and decorative fringes on the grip turned these arms into a display of craftsmanship rather than a fighting instrument. For use at festivals and tournaments Duke Maximilian I of Bavaria had a sword made in 1626 with the blade embellished with the Bavarian coat of arms, highlighted in blue and gold.

The largest bearing sword that has come down to us would seem to be the one which Edward, Prince of Wales (later King Edward V), ordered for his bodyguard when he was created Duke of Chester (1475). It had a German blade, bearing the "running wolf" mark of Passau that was double-edged and ribbed, with a central fuller and an ogival point. It had long, straight quillions, and the grip ended in a flag, octagonal pommel. The sword measured 89" in all.

Executioner's Sword. A sword slightly more than 40" long, with a blade measuring 33-35" in length and 2.5-3" in width, with a rounded point. The quillions were quite short, and mainly straight, but sometimes curved in an S-form; a pear-shaped, mushroom-shaped, or faceted pommel surmounted the long grip. Throughout the 17th century it was widely used in central Europe for beheadings, but this use ceased altogether in the early 18th century. The earliest such sword dates back to 1540, although the form and lines of this example recall those of the two-handed sword in use in the late 15th century. The blades of executioner's swords were often decorated with designs representing justice, the gallows, the rack, and the Crucifixion, or with moralistic inscriptions. When it was no longer used for executions, the sword sometimes continued to be used in ceremonies and processions as a symbol of power.

Source