Revolution in Spanish South and Central America

[Gladstone]

After the American and French Revolutions of 1776 and 1789, revolution would soon break out in Spanish South and Central America, much of it led by Simon Bolivar, whom is known as 'the George Washington of South America'.

He was great admirer of the American Revolution and a great critic of the French Revolution. Bolívar described himself in his many letters as a "liberal" and defender of the free market economic system.

Simon Bolivar was a Freemason who was raised in the Scottish Rite, 1807. Simon also founded the Lodge Order and Liberty No. 2 in Peru in 1824


Simon Bolivar (1783-1830)

Simón José Antonio de la Santísima Trinidad Bolívar y Palacios (born July 24, 1783 in Caracas, Venezuela; died December 17, 1830, in Santa Marta, Colombia) was a leader of several independence movements throughout South America, collectively known as Bolívar's War.

Credited with leading the fight for independence in what are now the countries of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, Peru, Panama, and Bolivia, he is revered as a hero in these countries and throughout much of the rest of Hispanic America.

In 1802, he married María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alaysa. She died of yellow fever less than a year later and he never remarried.

Bolívar is known as "El Libertador" (the Liberator).

Simón Bolívar as he is depicted
on a Venezuelan Un Bolivar coin.
The currency in Venezuela is named
in his honor.

Family heritage and early life

The Bolívar aristocratic bloodline derives from a small village in the Basque Country, called Bolibar, which is the origin of the surname. His father descended remotely from King Fernando III of Castile and Count Amedeo IV of Savoy. The Bolivars settled in Venezuela in the sixteenth century.

A portion of their wealth came from the Aroa River gold and copper mines in Venezuela. In 1632, gold was first mined, leading to further discoveries of extensive copper deposits. Towards the later 1600s, copper was exploited with the name "Cobre Caracas". These mines became the property of Simón Bolívar's family. Later in his revolutionary life, Bolívar used part of the mineral income to finance the South American revolutionary wars. Some people claim that his family grew to prominence before gaining great wealth. For example, the Cathedral of Caracas, founded in 1575, has a side chapel dedicated to Simón Bolívar's family.

Bolívar was born in Caracas, in modern-day Venezuela and educated by tutors after his parents died. Among his tutors was Simón Rodríguez, whose ideas and educational style heavily influenced the young man.

Following the death of his parents, Juan Vicente de Bolívar y Ponte, 1st Marqués de San Luis, and his wife María de la Concepción de Palacios y Blanco, he went to Spain in 1799 to complete his education. There he married María Teresa Rodríguez del Toro y Alaysa in 1802, but on a brief return visit to Venezuela in 1803, she succumbed to yellow fever. Bolívar returned to Europe in 1804 and for a time was part of Napoleon's retinue.

Freemasonry

Simon Bolivar was a Freemason who was raised in the Scottish Rite, 1807. Simon also founded the Lodge Order and Liberty No. 2 in Peru in 1824. [1]

Simon Bolivar Monument in Merida, Venezuela

El Libertador

Bolívar returned to Venezuela in 1807, and, when Napoleon made Joseph Bonaparte King of Spain and its colonies in 1808, he participated in the resistance juntas in South America. The Caracas junta declared its independence in 1810, and Bolívar was sent to Britain on a diplomatic mission.

Bolívar returned again to Venezuela in 1811. In March 1812, Bolívar was forced to leave Venezuela because of an earthquake that destroyed Caracas. In July 1812, junta leader Francisco de Miranda surrendered to the Spanish, and Bolívar had to flee to Cartagena de Indias. In this period, Bolívar wrote his Manifiesto de Cartagena. In 1813, after acquiring a military command in New Granada under the direction of the Congress of Tunja, he led the invasion of Venezuela on May 14. This was the beginning of the famous Campaña Admirable, the Admirable Campaign. He entered Mérida on May 23, where he was proclaimed as El Libertador, following the occupation of Trujillo on June 9. Six days later, on June 15, he dictated his famous Decree of War to the Death (Decreto de Guerra a Muerte). Caracas was retaken on August 6, 1813, and Bolívar was ratified as "El Libertador", thus proclaiming the Venezuelan Second Republic. Due to the rebellion of José Tomás Boves in 1814 and the fall of the republic, he returned to New Granada, where he then commanded a Colombian nationalist force and entered Bogotá in 1814, recapturing the city from the dissenting republican forces of Cundinamarca. He intended to march into Cartagena and enlist the aid of local forces in order to capture Royalist Santa Marta. However, after a number of political and military disputes with the government of Cartagena, Bolívar fled, in 1815, to Jamaica, where he petitioned the Haitian leader Alexandre Pétion for aid.

In 1816, with Haitian help (given because he promised to free slaves), Bolívar landed in Venezuela and captured Angostura (now Ciudad Bolívar).

A victory at the Battle of Boyacá in 1819 added New Granada to the territories free from Spanish control, and in September 7, 1821 the Gran Colombia (a federation covering much of modern Venezuela, Colombia, Panama, and Ecuador) was created, with Bolívar as president and Francisco de Paula Santander as vice president.

Further victories at the Carabobo in 1821 and Pichincha in 1822 consolidated his rule over Venezuela and Ecuador respectively. After a meeting in Guayaquil, on July 26 and July 27, 1822, with Argentine General José de San Martín, who had received the title of Protector of Peruvian Freedom, in August 1821, after having partially liberated Peru from the Spanish, Bolívar took over the task of fully liberating Peru. The Peruvian congress named him dictator of Peru, on February 10, 1824, which allowed Bolívar to completely reorganize the political and military administration. Bolívar, assisted by Antonio José de Sucre, decisively defeated the Spanish cavalry, on August 6, 1824, at Junín. Sucre destroyed the still numerically superior remnants of the Spanish forces at Ayacucho on December 9.

On August 6, 1825, at the Congress of Upper Peru, the Republic of Bolivia was created. Bolívar is thus one of the few men to have a country named after him. The constitution reflected the influence of the French and Scottish Enlightenment on Bolívar's political thought, as well as that of classical Greek and Roman authors.

Bolívar had great difficulties maintaining control of the vast Gran Colombia. During 1826, internal divisions had sparked dissent throughout the nation and regional uprisings erupted in Venezuela, thus the fragile South American coalition appeared to be on the verge of collapse.

An amnesty was declared and an arrangement was reached with the Venezuelan rebels, but political dissent in New Granada grew as a consequence of this. In an attempt to keep the federation together as a single entity, Bolívar called for a constitutional convention at Ocaña during April 1828.

He had seen his dream of eventually creating an American Revolution-style federation between all the newly independent republics, with a government ideally set-up solely to recognize and uphold individual rights, succumb to the pressures of particular interests throughout the region, which rejected that model and allegedly had little or no allegiance to liberal principles.

For this reason, and to prevent a break-up, Bolívar wanted to implement in Gran Colombia a more centralist model of government, including some or all of the elements of the Bolivian constitution he had written (which included a lifetime presidency with the ability to select a successor, though this was theoretically held in check by an intricate system of balances).

This move was considered controversial and was one of the reasons why the deliberations met with strong opposition. The convention almost ended up drafting a document which would have implemented a radically federalist form of government, which would have greatly reduced the powers of the central administration.

Unhappy with what would be the ensuing result, Bolívar's delegates left the convention. After the failure of the convention due to grave political differences, Bolívar proclaimed himself dictator on August 27, 1828 through the "Organic Decree of Dictatorship".

He considered this as a temporary measure, as a means to reestablish his authority and save the republic, though it increased dissatisfaction and anger among his political opponents. An assassination attempt on September 25, 1828 failed, in part thanks to the help of his lover, Manuela Sáenz, according to popular belief.

Although Bolívar emerged physically intact from the event, this nevertheless greatly affected him. Dissident feelings continued, and uprisings occurred in New Granada, Venezuela and Ecuador during the next two years.

Statue of Simón Bolívar in Belgrave Square, London

Death and Legacy

Bolívar finally resigned his presidency on April 27, 1830, intending to leave the country for exile in Europe, possibly in France. He had already sent several crates (containing his belongings and his writings) ahead of him to Europe.

He died before setting sail, after a painful battle with tuberculosis on December 17, 1830, in "La Quinta de San Pedro Alejandrino", in Santa Marta, Colombia.

His remains were moved from Santa Marta to Caracas in 1842, where a monument was set up for his burial. The 'Quinta' near Santa Marta has been preserved as a museum with numerous references to his life.[3]

Simón Bolívar Memorial Monument
in Santa Marta, Colombia

Political legacy

On his deathbed, Bolívar asked his aide-de-camp, General Daniel Florencio O'Leary to burn the extensive archive of his writings, letters, and speeches. O'Leary disobeyed the order and his writings survived, providing historians with a vast wealth of information about Bolívar's liberal philosophy and thought.

He was great admirer of the American Revolution and a great critic of the French Revolution. Bolívar described himself in his many letters as a "liberal" and defender of the free market economic system. Among the books he traveled with when he wrote the Bolivian Constitution were Montesquieu's Spirit of the Laws and Adam Smith's Wealth of Nations.

Bolívar's many speeches and writings reveal him to be an adherent of limited government, the separation of powers, freedom of religion, property rights, and the rule of law.

Relatives

Simón Bolívar has no direct descendants. His bloodline lives on through his sister Juana Bolívar y Palacios who married their maternal uncle Dionisio Palacios y Blanco and had two children: Guillermo and Benigna.

Guillermo died when fighting alongside his uncle in the battle of La Hogaza in 1817. Benigna Palacios y Bolívar married Pedro Amestoy. Their great-grandchildren, Pedro (94), and Eduardo Mendoza Goiticoa (90) live in Caracas. They are Simón Bolívar's closest living relatives.[3]

Honors

In addition to the statues shown elsewhere in this article, there is an equestrian statue commemorating Bolívar's life and works in Washington, D.C., a statue at the UN Plaza in San Francisco, a statue in the Basque Country, Spain, a statue on the Reforma Avenue in Mexico City, a statue in Cairo, Egypt, another statue signifying the friendship between Quebec and South America in Quebec City and Ottawa, and also a bust in Sydney, Australia. A statue in Bolivar, Missouri which was presented by President Rómulo Gallegos of Venezuela and dedicated by President Harry S. Truman. A central avenue in Ankara, the capital of Turkey, bears his name. Bolivar, West Virginia displays a bust.

Furthermore, every city and town in Venezuela & Colombia (in this one each capital city but Pasto) have a main square known as Plaza Bolivar, that usually has a bust or a statue of Bolivar, the most famous of these Plaza Bolivar is the one in Caracas. The central avenue of Caracas is called Avenida Bolivar, and at its end there is a twin tower complex named Centro Simon Bolivar built during the 1950s that holds several governmental offices.

Other notes

Bolívar crossed 123 thousand kilometers, more than Christopher Columbus and Vasco da Gama together.

President of six nations: Bolivia, Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, Peru, and Venezuela. However, he was only officially president of four nations (Bolivia, Colombia, Peru and Venezuela).

There is a cigar named after Bolívar.

The city of Bolívar, Tennessee, USA is named after Bolívar.

A town in Missouri, USA is named after Bolívar.

A town in upstate New York, USA is named after Bolívar.

In southern Texas (Galveston County), along the Gulf of Mexico Coast lies the Bolívar Peninsula.

A department in Colombia, a state in Venezuela and a province in Ecuador are named after Bolívar.

A road in New Delhi, India is named after Simón Bolívar.

A street in Mexico City is named after Bolívar (Bolívar spent a few days in a house on that street when he visited Mexico City).

Bolívar summoned the congresses of Angostura and Panamá.

Notes

1 Simon Bolivar Grand Lodge of British Columbia & The Yukon
2 Simón Bolívar entry on Find a Grave.com
3 Simón Bolívar.org, Familia

Source

Additional Links

Simon Bolivar

Rather interesting article from last month - FOXNews.com - Bush Likens George Washington, Simon Bolivar - Politics | Republican Party | Democratic Party | Political Spectrum

[Gladstone]

In the southern portion of South America and in conjunction with Simon Bolivar, José de San Martín would lead the revolution.

While in Spain, San Martín became acquainted with several criollos, and becomes aware of the independentists movements in America. Years later, on September 11, 1848, in a letter to Ramón Castilla he would write that in 1811, "In a meeting of Americans in Cadiz, knowing of the first movements of Caracas, Buenos Aires and elsewhere we resolved to return each to our country of birth, in order to offer our services to the struggle we considered was bound to intensify".

On May 16, 1811, he participated on the Battle of Albuera under the command of general William Carr Beresford. During the battle he met Scottish Lord MacDuff (James Duff, the Fourth Earl of Fife) who introduced him to the lodges that were plotting the South American independence efforts...


José Francisco de San Martín (1778-1850)

José Francisco de San Martín Matorras, also known as José de San Martín (25 February 1778 – 17 August 1850), was an Argentine general and the prime leader of the southern part of South America's successful struggle for independence from Spain. Born on February 25, 1778 in Yapeyú, he left his mother country at an early age and studied in Madrid, Spain where he met and befriended Chilean Bernardo O'Higgins. In 1789, after joining the Spanish forces to fight against the French, and participating in several battles such as the Battle of Bailén and Battle of Albuera, San Martín started making contact with South American supporters of independence.

In 1812, he set sail for Buenos Aires from England, and offered his services to the United Provinces of the South (roughly present Argentina). After the Battle of San Lorenzo in 1813, and some time in command of the Army of the North during 1814, he started his plan to attack Lima. This involved first creating an army in Cuyo, liberating Chile, and then attacking Lima by sea.

In 1817, in a feat comparable to the Crossing of the Alps by Hannibal and Napoleon, he crossed the Andes from Mendoza to Chile, and prevailed over the Spanish forces after the Battle of Chacabuco and Battle of Maipú (1818), liberating Chile together with Chilean Bernardo O'Higgins. San Martín seized partial control of the viceroyalty's capital (Lima) in July 12, 1821 and was appointed Protector of Perú. After a closed-door meeting with fellow libertador Simón Bolívar at Guayaquil, Ecuador on 22 July 1822, Bolívar took over the task of fully liberating Peru and declared its independence. San Martín unexpectedly left Perú and resigned the command of his army, excluding himself from politics and the military, and moving to France in 1824. The details of the 22 July meeting would be a subject of debate by later historians.

Together with Simón Bolívar in the north, San Martín is regarded as one of the Liberators of Spanish South America.

He is the national hero of Argentina.

Birth

Son of Spanish Juan de San Martín and Gregoria Matorras, he was born the fifth and last child in February 25, 1778 in Yapeyú, a small village in Corrientes, Argentina.

His father was a Colonel in office as Lieutenant Governor of Yapeyú beginning in 1774. In 1781, the family moved to Buenos Aires.

Spain

In 1784, his father was transferred again, this time to Spain. And so the family moved to Spain, and San Martín enrolled in Madrid's Real Seminario de Nobles where he studied from 1785. While at the Real Seminario de Nobles he met and became friends with Bernardo O'Higgins.

In 1789, aged eleven, San Martín left the Real Seminario de Nobles and enrolled in the Regiment of Murcia, starting his military career.

Military career in Europe

After joining the Regiment of Murcia, San Martín participated on several campaigns in Africa, fighting in Melilla and Oran, among other places. Later, by the end of the First Coalition of the French Revolutionary Wars in 1797, his rank was raised to Sub-Lieutenant for his actions against the French in the Pyrenees. On August of the same year, after several engagements, his regiment surrendered to British naval forces. Soon afterwards, he continued to fight in southern Spain, mainly in Cádiz and Gibraltar with the rank of Second Captain of light infantry.

When the Peninsular War started in 1808, San Martín was assigned ayudante (Spanish, helper) of the First Regiment Voluntarios de Campo Mayor. After his actions against the French, he became Captain of the Regiment of Borbon. On July 19, 1808, Spanish and French forces engage in the Battle of Bailén, in which Spanish forces prevailed, allowing the Army of Andalucia to attack and seize Madrid. For his actions during this battle, San Martín was decorated with a gold medal, and his rank raised to Lieutenant Colonel.

While in Spain, San Martín became acquainted with several criollos, and becomes aware of the independentists movements in America. Years later, on September 11, 1848, in a letter to Ramón Castilla he would write that in 1811, "In a meeting of Americans in Cadiz, knowing of the first movements of Caracas, Buenos Aires and elsewhere we resolved to return each to our country of birth, in order to offer our services to the struggle we considered was bound to intensify".

On May 16, 1811, he participated on the Battle of Albuera under the command of general William Carr Beresford. During the battle he met Scottish Lord MacDuff (James Duff, the Fourth Earl of Fife) who introduced him to the lodges that were plotting the South American independence efforts. San Martín requested resignation from the Spanish army, which was granted.

England

With the help of Lord MacDuff, San Martín obtained a passport to England where he met several criollos who were part of the Logia de los Caballeros Racionales (Lodge of the Rational Knights) founded by the Venezuelan Francisco de Miranda. According to Argentine historian Felipe Pigna, San Martín was introduced to the Maitland Plan by members of the lodge founded by Miranda and Lord MacDuff.

In 1812, San Martín set sail to Buenos Aires aboard the British frigate George Canning.

San Martín's tomb in the
Buenos Aires Cathedral

South America

Argentina

Following his arrival in Buenos Aires on March 9, 1812, his rank of Lieutenant Colonel was recognized by the Triumvirate and he was thus entrusted with the creation of the Regiment of Mounted Granadiers (Regimiento de Granaderos a Caballo), which would become the best-trained military arm of the revolution.

During 1812, he focused on training troops by following the modern warfare techniques he had acquired during the Peninsular War. With Carlos María de Alvear and José Matias Zapiola, he also entablished the Logia Lautaro, an offspring in Buenos Aires of the independence lodges in London and Cádiz. On August of the same year, he married María de los Remedios de Escalada, a young woman from one of the local wealthy families.

In October, when news of the victory of the Army of the North (Spanish, Ejército del Norte) commanded by Manuel Belgrano reached Buenos Aires, the Lautaro Lodge initiated political pressure, backed by San Martín armed forces and popular demand, to impose its candidates into government, thus forcing the First Triumvirate to an end and initiating the Second Triumvirate with members Juan José Paso, Nicolás Rodríguez Peña, and Antonio Álvarez Jonte (Rodríguez Peña and Álvarez Jonte were members of the lodge). This new government strengthened the position held by the Army, and decided to lay siege to Montevideo, which was controlled by loyalist to the Spanish Crown. On December 7, 1812, San Martín was promoted to Colonel.

Beginning of his military career in South America

Although not technically a battle (in Spanish the battle is referred as Combate de San Lorenzo ("San Lorenzo Combat"), references in English language refer to the event as the "Battle of San Lorenzo".

On January 28, 1813, San Martín with his Mounted Granadiers (comprising around 150 soldiers) was sent to protect the Paraná River shore from the Spanish Fleet of 11 ships under command of General José Zavala. On the morning of February 3, the Spanish forces of around 250 men disembarked and fought against San Martín in the Battle of San Lorenzo.

During the fight, San Martín's horse was shot dead and fell, trapping one of San Martín's legs underneath the dead horse. This made him an easy target, but Sargent Juan Bautista Cabral helped him extricate himself. While he was helping the Colonel, Cabral was attacked himself, and died from his wounds after the battle. After the battle, San Martín was promoted to General. This was San Martín's first military action in South America.

Army of the North

After the victories of the Army of the North in the battles of Tucuman and Salta, the Army commanded by Manuel Belgrano lost ground after defeats in the Battles of Vilcapugio (October 1) and Ayuhuma November 14, 1813. The Triumvirate then decided to send San Martín to the North with a small infantry army and his cavarly regiment.

After joining the defeated Army of the North in Yatasto, he took command in January 1814, Belgrano becoming second in command. During his command, the Army camped in Tucumán, where he started instructing the troops, created a new military school, and sent Colonel Martín Guemes to fight against loyalist coming from Peru to gain time. However, after minor struggles in Salta and Jujuy, news of the victory of Commander Guillermo Brown against the loyalist's navy, and the resulting blockade of Montevideo, made the loyalist forces from Peru retreat to concentrate its forces.

On April 1814, San Martín was granted a leave to treat an illness and moved to Córdoba.

During his command of the Army of the North, San Martín confirmed one of the reasons behind the Maitland Plan's scheme: royalist forces that came down from the Upper Peru (roughly present day Bolivia) were easily defeated by the independentist forces in the valleys of Salta and Jujuy. But because of the geographical advantage, forces attacking Upper Peru were easily defeated by the royalists for the very same reasons.


Governor of Cuyo

In Córdoba, San Martín continued preparing his plan of attacking Lima –the Capital city of the Viceroyalty of Peru– through Chile. To this end, he requested to be appointed governor of Cuyo. Later, Juan Pueyrredón was sent by the provisional government of the United Provinces of the Río de la Plata, and gave San Martín full support on his Liberatory Campaign (Spanish, Campaña Libertadora).

Once in office, while San Martín was focused on preparations for the Crossing of the Andes (Spanish, Cruce de los Andes), he also performed his duties as Governor. During his term, he made tax collection stricter, farm workers were reglamented, ordered a massive vaccination against small pox, and founded a library. He also reorganized the mail service to strengthen its security. Meanwhile, he tried to exhort other provinces to declare independence. Particularly, Tomás Godoy Cruz, receive his letters regularly on this matter.

One month after he took office, royalist forces defeated rebel forces under Bernardo O'Higgins' command (O'Higgins fled to the Andes). San Martín strengthened his espionage network with the so-called Guerra de zapa (Spanish; "War of Zapa"), a pun on the expression Trabajo de zapa, which means hidden work done slyly towards some particular aim.

On this behalf, San Martín sent his Aide-de-camp and amateur cartographer Álvarez Condaco (carrying an Act of Independence to Chile as an excuse) through Los Patos pass (the longest path), and returned through the Uspallata (the shortest one), to perform reconnaissance of several locations, mainly the Chacabuco area. Other measures included a disinformation campaign in Chile by sending fake information on the possible attack routes, and information gathering of the situation in Chile in order to prevent a possible attack from there.

Monument of the Army of the Andes
in Mendoza, Argentina

Army of the Andes

During his governorship of Cuyo, he organized the Army of Cuyo. On 8 November 1814 he created the 11th Battalion of Infantry (Spanish, Batallón Número 11 de Infantería) which included the Corps of Chile (Spanish, Cuerpo de Chile, which was under command of Argentine General Gregorio de Las Heras. These Chilean corps were remnants of the army that had fled from Chile after the Battle of Rancagua. By October 1815, after contributions of several provinces, the army had 1,600 infantry soldiers, 1,000 men in cavalry, 200 men in artillery and 10 cannons. However many problems arose, such as low supplies of powder, iron, and uniforms. Because existing local industries were not enough to supply the Army of the North, San Martín handled the problem by creating local industries in Cuyo to meet the requirements of the army he was creating.

On the other hand, despite having the support of the Supreme Director of the United Provinces of Río de la Plata, the support was far from being at a national level. His efforts were often undermined by the skepticism of some local leaders about the viability of the campaign against the Viceroyalty of Peru through the Andes. However, on August 1, 1816, Pueyrredón renamed the army to Army of the Andes (Spanish, Ejército de los Andes) and San Martín was appointed General in chief, and gave the army national priority.

By the end of the preparations, the Army of the Andes had 3 generals, 28 chiefs, 207 officials, 15 civil employees, 3,778 soldiers, and 1,392 auxiliary forces, totalling 5,423 men, 18 pieces of artillery, 1,500 horses and 9,280 mules. All of these were placed under the command of San Martín.

Crossing of the Andes

In September 1816, San Martín relocated his Army of the Andes to Plumerillo, in the northern part of Mendoza Province, where he finished the details to start his crossing of the Andes. The army was divided in two main columns and four minor ones, keeping the decided paths in secret.

On January 18, 1817, a main column parted with the artillery to Chile through Uspallata, under command of General Las Heras, reaching Las Cuevas on February 1, 1817. The second main column led by San Martín, left on January 19 through Los Patos pass, and reached San Andrés de Tártaro on February 8, where he was later joined by Las Heras, concluding the first part of the crossing. By the time the main columns reunited, both had already had minor skirmishes: the first column had fought royalists in Potrerillos, while the forces led by San Martín had fought the Battles of Achupallas and Las Coimas.

The crossing of the Andes took twenty-one days. It was an extremely difficult enterprise, with temperatures ranging from 30° Celsius during the day to -10° Celsius at night, altitudes averaging 3000 meters above sea level, and paths that were far from being roads appropriate for an army: they consisted of a 50 cm wide paths mainly used by locals for travelling on mules, with several passages which had to be crossed literally in single file. Besides all those hardships, San Martín was far from healthy and was carried on a stretcher during most of the trip. By the end of crossing, around 300 men — 5.5% of the total at the beginning — had lost their lives, mostly due to the harsh conditions of the trip.

Campaign in Chile

After crossing the Andes and entering Chile, the Spanish royalist forces were taking positions in Mount Cuesta Vieja, preparing themselves for the confrontation against the Army of the Andes.

The Battle of Chacabuco - 1817

Battle of Chacabuco

By February 10, 1817, the Army of the Andes was in the Aconcagua valley, and the Spanish royalist forces had not still taken full positions. San Martín then took the initiative and hastened preparations for his attack. Despite a severe attack of Rheumatoid arthritis, San Martín commanded the battle, and seeing the Spanish forces under numerical inferiority and considering the surprise factor, developed a strategy for the Spanish forces to surrender, avoiding bloodshed.

At 2 am on February 12, 1817, the forces commanded by San Martín started ascending Mount Cuesta Vieja, divided in two main divisions. Facing south, the division on the left was under General Miguel Estanislao Soler and the one to the right under O'Higgins' command. Initially the strategy consisted on the right division under Soler's command to take position on the rear of the loyalist, while the forces under O'Higgins would face the vanguard. Meanwhile, squads of the Regiment of Mounted Grenadiers were scouting the area.

At around 10 pm, the Grenadiers took the vanguard of the royalist forces by surprise – Spanish General Rafael Maroto was expecting two more days to take positions, and to receive more troops – and charged against the fleeing royalist infantry. This secured an important strategic position for the battle, where O'Higgins' division was placed. O'Higgins then requested permission to pursue the fleeing royalist vanguard in order to avoid their reorganization, to which San Martín agreed but recommended not taking action until Soler's division was in place. Despite this, the forces led by O'Higgins went down, only to find an arroyo (creek), leaving them in a bad position and in range of enemy guns. At this point, O'Higgins division started retreating. Seeing the delicate position of the O'Higgins' troops, San Martín sent a message to Soler, ordering him to hurry up and charge. According to historian Bartolomé Mitre, maybe because of his bad relationship with Soler, and not wanting him to take credit of the victory, O'Higgins ordered a charge, yelling "Soldiers! To live with honor or die in glory! Follow me the brave one. Columns, charge!". The charge was a stalemate until Soler's division joined the battle turning the odds in favor of the patriot side.

After the battle, the royalist forces had suffered five hundred casualties and six hundred royalist soldiers had been taken prisoner. On the Army of the Andes side, there were twelve killed and around one hundred wounded. The army also gained new artillery and other weapons, besides restoring the Chilean revolution.

San Martín sent a a message reporting the victory: "The Army of the Andes has attained glory and can report: In twenty-four days we have completed the campaign, passed through the highest mountain range on the globe, defeated the tyrants and given freedom to Chile".

Statue of José de San Martín
in Santiago de Chile.

Chacabuco aftermath

On February 14, San Martín and O'Higgins triumphally entered Santiago, and on February 18, in a meeting held in the town open hall, San Martín was appointed Governor of Chile. San Martín immediately resigned, thus O'Higgins was elected Supreme Director of the State of Chile (Spanish, Director Supremo del Estado de Chile). The United Army (Spanish, Ejército Unido) was created with Chilean and Argentine soldiers. The Chilean soldiers were under O'Higgins command, while San Martín was General in Chief of the whole United Army.

Then San Martín, in order to raise funds for a fleet, left for Buenos Aires. After negotiating with Pueyrredón, a delegation was sent to London to provide ships for a new fleet in the Pacific Ocean. Back in Chile in the last days of 1817, San Martín sent a delegation to Lima under the pretext of proposing to the Viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela of Peru the regularization of the war and exchange of POWs. The real purpose was to gain as much information as possible about the enemy's plans. The delegation brought the news that a Spanish army under General Mariano Osorio was about to set sail in four frigates to southern Chile.

Despite the success in the Battle of Chacabuco, and while leaving Santiago and the northern Chile under patriot control, the royalist forces still had strong presence in southern Chile. The men under Osorio's command joined the royalist forces in the south by sea. The royalists also had allied themselves with Mapuche native Americans.

Battle of Cancha Rayada

On 19 March 1818, the royalist forces concentrated and fortified in Talca with around five thousand men under General Osorio, while the independent forces of around seven thousand men formed by the United Army were taking positions in the Cancha Rayada plains. San Martín, fearing an attack on his flank, ordered a change of position of the troops.

Knowing their disadvantage in number and cavalry, the Spanish General Mariano Osorio was not eager to engage in battle, fortifying in Talca. However, after a suggestion from Colonel José Ordóñez a confrontation was decided upon, under Ordoñez' command. In a bold move, Ordoñez made the kind of attack San Martín had feared: circumventing the city and making a surprise attack at night behind the vanguard where the patriot forces were still taking positions. The surprise attack happened before the patriot army had re-positioned itself, and was a directed at the battalion under O'Higgins command, near San Martín's position. Soon, the vanguard soldiers dispersed, leaving O'Higgins in a bad position; his horse was shot dead and he was wounded in one arm. In an uncharacteristic move, instead of ordering retreat San Martín held the position, which made more patriot soldiers flee under enemy fire, leaving weapons and supplies behind. After the initial disorder, however, he ordered retreat. The rear and reserves had already re-positioned, somewhat withstanding the attack, but had no-one in command (Colonel Hilarión de la Quintana had left to headquarters to receive orders after the re-position and had not yet returned). Las Heras took command, and led the men during the retreat, while trying to recover as much artillery and weapons as possible. San Martín and O'Higgins (who were also retreating at full speed) were being closely chased by royalist forces.

By 21 March 1818, the decimated patriot forces of around three and half thousand men reunited in San Fernando, while news of the defeat reached Santiago. Rumors of deaths of O'Higgins and San Martín were spreading, and an exodus from Santiago to Mendoza started. Regarding the battle, San Martín sent the following message: "Camping the army under my command in the outskirts of Talca, it was attacked by the enemy, and suffered an almost generalized disbanding which forced me to retreat. I'm reuniting the troops right now, with happy results, as I'm already counting 4,000 men from Curicó to Palequén".

The battle (which was the only defeat the campaign had suffered) resulted in around 150 killed, and two hundred men taken prisoner. Several hundred had deserted, the whole artillery of the Argentine side was lost along with considerable amounts of horses, mules and weapons from both the Chilean and Argentine parts of the army. Despite the royalist victory, the action proved decimating to their side: two hundred soldiers had been killed, three hundred men captured and around six hundred had deserted, a total comprising more than half the two thousand men that had charged into the battle.

Battle of Maipú

After the sorpresa de Cancha Rayada (surprise of Cancha Rayada), the royalist forces concentrated and marched towards Santiago. On 4 April 1818, the United Army took positions in Loma Blanca, near the Maipú plains. The army separated into three divisions: Las Heras commanding the column on the right, Colonel Rudecindo Alvarado commanding the column on the left, and Quintana at the rear. O'Higgins (still wounded) was in charge of the reserves.

The royalist forces under General Osorio's command took defensive positions, despite the convictions of some Colonels (among whom was Ordoñez) that taking the offensive as in Cancha Rayada was the best option. According to Irish Mounted Granadier John Thomond O'Brien, San Martín, seeing Osorio's disposition of the forces, exclaimed "Osorio is clumsier than I thought. Today's triumph is ours. The sun as witness!".

Around 11 am on the morning of 5 April 1818, the patriotic forces charged against the royalist forces with devastating resolution: after the sustained six-hour battle, the royalists were defeated. Osorio attempted to retreat to a property called "Lo Espejos" (The Mirrors) but failing to reach it, fled to Talcahuano with around twelve hundred men, although virtually rendered useless as they had lost most, if not all, of their weapons.

The royalist forces suffered two thousand dead, three thousand prisoners taken and lost all its artillery. The patriotic forces, on the other hand, suffered one thousand casualties. Historian and Colonel José Luis Picciuolo stated in his book Argentina Cavalry in the History of the Army that "this battle was executed as a typical act of annihilation".

As result of the battle, the Spanish control over northern Chile ended, and the independence declared on 12 February 1818 was partially accomplished. Viceroy Pezuela considered northern Chile lost, and Osorio set sail for Peru, leaving Colonel Juan Francisco Sánchez in charge of one thousand men in Talcahuano.

San Martín's portrait appears
on the Argentine five-peso bill.

Fleet of the Pacific

Since the Battle of Chacabuco, San Martín had urged both governments of Santiago and Buenos Aires to build a fleet on the Pacific. Convoys had been sent to the United States and England in order to buy and hire several ships, however, lack of political cohesion in Argentina, a Spanish blockade in Valparaiso, and the Battles of Cancha Rayada and Maipú heavily delayed the project. On the other hand, the mountainous landscape of the region lent itself to a large dependence of the colonial Chilean economy on maritime trade routes and shipping. This meant that there was an abundance of shipyards and a ready supply of sailors.

Right after the Battle of Maipú, San Martín left for Buenos Aires in order to speed up the process (and meet his wife and daughter which he had not seen since the start of the Campaign of the Andes). Once in Buenos Aires, after learning the fact that half a million pesos would not be available for the project from Pueyrredón, San Martín resigned as Commander of the Army under the pretext of being prescripted by his doctor to take rest in Chile's hotsprings. The resignation was not accepted and San Martín was granted a license.

Act of Rancagua

After Supreme Director José Rondeau was defeated in the Battle of Cepeda, San Martín sent his resignation of the Army's command from Santiago to Rancagua, where Colonel Las Heras had settled with the army, arguing that the authority to which he had to report had ceased to exist, and thus his own authority had expired. The officials of the army rejected his resignation on the basis that the army's goal was to hasten the happiness of the country and the authority was given ultimately by the health of the people, something that was immutable and could not expire.

Peru

On 20 August 1820, a fleet of eight warships and sixteen transport ships of the Chilean Navy, under the command of Thomas Alexander Cochrane, 10th Earl of Dundonald, set sail from Valparaíso to Paracas, southern Peru.

On 7 September, the army landed on Paracas and successfully attacked Pisco. On 11 September 1820, San Martín sent a "manifesto" to the Peruvian people stating "My announcement is not that of a conqueror that tries to create a new enslavement. I cannot help but be an accidental instrument of justice and agent of destiny. The outcome of victory will make Peru's capital see for the first time their sons united, freely choosing their government and emerging into the face of earth among the rank of nations".

Peru's national flag (1821-1822), created by San Martín

Expedition of Peru

While previous campaigns had been militaristic, San Martín avoided confrontation in Peru and emphazised diplomacy. His strategy consisted of waiting for the Peruvian people to begin the uprising by themselves. This resulted in many diplomatic envoys to Lima, urging viceroy Joaquín de la Pezuela to grant the independence of Peru. However, these diplomatic efforts proved fruitless.

After seizing Pisco, the army set sail on 26 October toward the north and landed at Huacho – a better place from a strategic point of view – on 12 November. Huacho was used by San Martín as his main headquarters from thereon. While there, San Martín first heard of the emancipation of Guayaquil under the leadership of Peruvian Gregorio Escobedo. This and other events such as the maritime blockade of Callao by Cochrane and the victories over royalists by Alvarez de Arenales in Guacarillo (6 October) and Pasco (20 December) strengthened the position of the main independentist effort led by San Martín.

On 29 January, Pezuela was deposed by José de la Serna. On 21 February 1821, San Martín promulgated the Provisional Rules (Spanish, Reglamento Provisional) aimed to provide legal guarantees to the Peruvian citizens, and designed the first flag of Peru. Soon afterwards he started preparing to march on Lima.

In March, 1821 the army set sail and landed in Ancón (near Lima), while dispatching general Guillermo Miller to the southern coasts and Alvarez de Arenales towards the eastern hills, furthering Lima's isolation. Diplomatic efforts once again failed, as Viceroy Serna did not agree to declare independence, and San Martín did not accept Serna's proposal of acceptance by the independentists of the Spanish Constitution of 1812 and the sending emissaries to the Cortes Generales.

On 2 July, San Martín met Viceroy Serna. This time San Martín proposed to create a constitutional monarchy with a European monarch to be appointed later. Serna, arguing that he did not have the power to make such a decision, asked for two days to discuss the issue. However after discussing the issue with the royalist forces' commanders, the proposition was turned down on the basis that they did not have the power to grant independence, even if it was to create a monarchy.

San Martín's proclamation of the independence of Peru
on 28 July 1821 in Lima, Peru

Protector of Peru

José de San Martín's proclamation of the independence of Peru on 28 July 1821 in Lima, PeruSan Martín occupied Lima, the capital of Peru, on 12 July 1821. This was a huge loss for the Spanish forces. Independence from Spain for Peru was finally declared on 28 July 1821 and he was voted the "Protector" of the newly independent nation. During the same year, he founded the National Library of Peru, to which he donated his collection of books, and praised the new library as "... one of the most efficient means to spread our intellectual values". After Peru's parliament had been assembled, he resigned his command.

Meeting in Guayaquil

On 26 July 1822, he met with Simón Bolívar at Guayaquil to plan the future of Latin America. Most of the details of this meeting were secret at the time, and this has made the event a matter of much debate among later historians. Some believe that Bolívar's refusal to share command of the combined forces made San Martín withdraw from Peru and resettle as a farmer in Mendoza, Argentina. Another theory claims that San Martín yielded to Bolívar's energy and avoided a confrontation.

General San Martin in Paris - 1848

Exile in Europe

In 1824, after his wife Remedios de Escalada died, he moved to Europe with his daughter Mercedes, first in England, then in Brussels. To keep a neutral position during the 1830 Belgian Revolution, he moved to Paris where he caught the cholera. Cured but weakened, he bought a house and retired at Grand-Bourg, near Evry, but was once again disturbed by history. In 1848, when the revolution started in Paris, he decided to move to London, but finally stopped in Boulogne-sur-Mer where he spent the remainder of his days.

His last acts on Argentine soil was the accepting of a gift from Buenos Aires governor Juan Manuel de Rosas and his refusing to fight in the civil wars that tore the country apart.

In 1880 his remains were taken from Brunoy to Buenos Aires and reinterred in the Buenos Aires Cathedral.

Anthem to San Martín

Anthem to the Liberator General San Martín
Music: Arturo Luzzatt Lyrics: Segundo M. Argarañaz

Climbs the Andes until their highest peak From the sea, the metal of his voice and between skies and everlasting snows shalt itrise the throne of the Liberator.

May trumpets of glory sound clearly and rise a tryumphal anthem because the light of history make gigantic the figure of the Great Captain.

Great father of the Argentine People, big hero of freedom! beneath his shadow the Fatherland grows in virtute, in work, and in peace.

San Martín! San Martín! may your name, the honour and glory of the people of the South, assure for ever the fates of the Fatherland enlightened by your light

From the lands of River Plate to Mendoza, from Santiago to gentile Lima, he went seeding laurels in the way in his triumphal journey, San Martín.

San Martín, the lord of war, for God's secret chose, was big when the Sun enlightened him, and even bigger in the Sun's decline.

References

1 (Spanish) Notification to the Government sent by San Martín after the Battle of San Lorenzo (Wikisource)
2 (Spanish) from San Martín to Bolivar (1821) (Wikisource)
3 (Spanish) José de San Martín (Wikipedia)
4 (Spanish) Bernardo O'Higgins (Wikipedia)
5 (Spanish) Batalla de Maipú (Wikipedia)
6 (Spanish) Batalla de Chacabuco (Wikipedia)

Source

[Gladstone]

Upon the completion of the revolutions of Central and South American states Simon Bolivar calls together a congress to meet in Panama in 1826 to discuss a potential union. The name of the proposed super-state...the 'United States of South America.

South America - 1860

United States of South America

The United States of South America is a political term and a state proposed by Simón Bolivar that was meant to include all the territories liberated by him and his friend José de San Martín. The term has recently resurged as the result of South American integration, such as the merging of Mercosur and CAN.

Proposed State

At the end of the Wars of Independence, fought in the 1810s and 1820s by the colonies of Spain in South America, several sovereign nations arose on the continent.

The notion of closer hemispheric union in the Americas was first put forward by the Liberator Simón Bolívar who, at the 1826 Congress of Panama, proposed creating a Confederation of Latin American republics, with a common military, a mutual defense pact, and a supranational parliamentary assembly. This meeting was attended by representatives of Gran Colombia (comprising the modern-day nations of Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela), Peru, the United Provinces of Central America, and Mexico, but the grandly titled "Treaty of Union, League, and Perpetual Confederation" was ultimately only ratified by Gran Colombia. Bolívar's dream soon floundered irretrievably with civil war in Gran Colombia, the disintegration of Central America, and the emergence of national rather than continental outlooks in the newly independent American republics.

The proposed confederation has never been realized. In the Cuzco Declaration of 2004, the South American countries said that by creating the South American Community of Nations they would try to partially realize Bolívar's dream of uniting Latin America. Some other names proposed for this new Community of Nations was Unión de Sudamérica (Union of South America) whose abbreviations in Spanish (and English) were USA, and United States of South América.

Congress of Panama

The Congress of Panama (often referred to as the Amphictyonic Congress in remembrance of the Amphictyonic League of Ancient Greece) was a congress organized by Simón Bolívar in 1826 so that Latin American countries could become closer and develop a unified policy towards Spain. Held in Panama City from 22 June to 15 July of that year, the meeting proposed creating a league of American republics, with a common military, a mutual defense pact, and a supranational parliamentary assembly. It was attended by representatives of Gran Colombia (comprising the modern-day nations of Colombia, Ecuador, Panama, and Venezuela), Peru, the United Provinces of Central America (Guatemala, El Salvador, Honduras, Nicaragua, and Costa Rica), and Mexico. However, the grandly titled "Treaty of Union, League, and Perpetual Confederation" that emerged from the Congress was ultimately only ratified by Gran Colombia, and Bolívar's dream soon foundered irretrievably with civil war in that nation, the disintegration of Central America, and the emergence of national rather than continental outlooks in the newly independent American republics.

The Congress of Panama also had political ramifications in the United States. President John Quincy Adams and Secretary of State Henry Clay wanted the U.S. to attend the Congress,which had only been invited due to pressure on Bolivar but, as much of Latin America had outlawed slavery, politicians from the Southern United States held up the mission by not approving funds or confirming the delegates. In the event, of the two U.S. delegates, one (Richard C. Anderson) died en route to Panama, and the other (John Sergeant) only arrived after the Congress had concluded its discussions. Thus Great Britain, who was there only as an observer, managed to acquire many good trade deals with Latin American countries.

Source

Source

[Gladstone]

As things stand at present...

We are here to make Simón Bolívar's dream real...Sooner, rather than later, we shall have a single currency, a single passport... Sooner, rather than later, we shall have a parliament with directly elected representatives for this new nation that we are creating today. Former Peruvian President Alejandro Toledo, 8 December 2004

The leaders announced their intention to model the new community after the European Union, including a common currency, parliament, and passport. According to Allan Wagner, former Secretary General of the Andean Community, a complete union like that of the EU should be possible by 2019.

South American Community of Nations

South American Community of Nations

The South American Community of Nations (CSN) (Spanish: Comunidad Sudamericana de Naciones, Portuguese: Comunidade Sul-Americana de Nações, Dutch: Zuid-Amerikaanse Statengemeenschap) will be a continent-wide free trade area that will unite two existing free-trade organizations—Mercosur and the Andean Community—eliminating tariffs for non-sensitive products by 2014 and sensitive products by 2019. The headquarters of this new organization will be in Lima while the South American Bank will be in Brasilia according to the agreements during the meetings. Complete integration between the Andean Community and Mercosur into the South American Community of Nations is expected by 2007.

Dignitaries attend the signing of
the Cuzco Declaration

Overview

At the Third South American Summit, on 8 December 2004, presidents or representatives from twelve South American nations signed the Cuzco Declaration, a two-page statement of intent, announcing the foundation of the South American Community. Panama attended the signing ceremony as an observer.

The leaders announced their intention to model the new community after the European Union, including a common currency, parliament, and passport. According to Allan Wagner, former Secretary General of the Andean Community, a complete union like that of the EU should be possible by 2019.

The mechanics of the new entity should come out at the First South American Community of Nations Heads of State Summit, which was held in Brasília on 29 September-30 September 2005. A constitution was also expected to be drafted in 2005. The Second Summit will be held in Bolivia. No new institutions will be created in the first phase, so as not to increase bureaucracy, and the community will use the existing institutions belonging to the previous trade blocs.

Origins

Simón Bolívar, directly responsible for the independence of Venezuela, Colombia, Ecuador, part of Peru and Bolivia in the early years of the 19th century, and honored with statues in the capital cities of practically every Latin American nation had the goal of creating a federation of nations to ensure prosperity and security after independence. Bolívar never achieved this goal, and died an unpopular figure because of his heavy-handed attempts to establish strong central governments in the nations he led to independence.

Participating nations

The 12 community members:

Members of the Andean Community (CAN):

Bolivia (started the process of joining Mercosur in 2006)
Colombia
Ecuador
Peru

Members of Mercosur:

Argentina
Brazil
Paraguay
Uruguay
Venezuela

Other countries:

Chile (in process of re-joining the Andean Community)
Guyana
Suriname

First Meeting of Heads of State
of the South American Community
of Nations (2005) in Brasília

Current works in progress

The South American Community of Nations started plans of integration with the construction of the Interoceanic Highway, a road that intends to unite Peru with Brazil by extending a highway through Bolivia, giving that country a path to the sea, while Brazil would obtain access to the Pacific Ocean and Peru to the Atlantic Ocean. Construction started in September 2005, financed 60% by Brazil and 40% by Peru. It is estimated to be done by 2009.

On 24 November 2006, the foreign ministers of Argentina, Bolivia, Brazil, Chile, Colombia, Ecuador, Guyana, Paraguay, Peru, Suriname, Uruguay and Venezuela reached an agreement to waive Visa requirements for tourism travel between nationals of said countries.

In January 2007, Peruvian President Alan García called for a single South American currency.

Name change proposal

On 28 December 2005, Chilean foreign minister Ignacio Walker proposed that the name of the community be changed to South American Union (Spanish: Unión Sudamericana, Portuguese: União Sul-Americana); nevertheless, many members stated to him that that proposal had already been rejected to prevent confusion related to its acronym (U.S.A.).

Source

[Gladstone]

Hmmm...the United States of (North) America...the United States of South America...the United States of Europe...the African Union...etc..etc..to someday should this pattern of consolidation continue form a 'United States of the World'? Sounds remarkably similar to accounts published in the United States here in April 1899, and here in January 1962.

April 1899

"Along what lines the movement toward this general world government will take place it is not easy to forecast, except in a general way. Two or three courses are open, any one or all of which may be followed. The United States of America may in time become really such. The very name seems to be prophetic. Canada, Mexico, and Central America may some day of their own accord, ask to be admitted into a federal union with the United States. In time a great South American republic of republics may be formed, through some movement or groups of movements akin to that already taking place among the Central American states and the British Australian colonies. Then may follow a federation of the two American continents. The United States of Europe, so long dreamed of and written of by European reformers, seem today but the shadow of a name; but whoever remembers the history of the consolidation of France and Italy, or Germany, or the still more remarkable history of the consolidation of the Swiss cantons composed of peoples of different races, speaking different languages, into a coherant national federation, will not say that a United States of Europe is an impossibility. On the contrary, the whole course of the modern history of nation building foreshadows a European federation. The continent of Asia may some day have a like transformation; and that of Africa, too, renewed at last by a Christian civilization; and that of Australia before either of them, if one may judge from the federative tendencies already showing themselves between the colonies there. If this should prove to be the way in which the world state is to work itself out, the islands of the sea will group themselves in with the continental federations where they naturally belong. At last these continental federations will flow together into a great world federation, the final political destiny of humanity, where all the larger hopes of love and fellowship, of peace and happy prosperity lie. I do not pretend to assert that the actual order of movement will be as here outlined, but only that this is a possible, perhaps a probable order in which the federation of the world will come, at least in part. This forecast is in harmony with actual historic processes now working, and having for generations worked, at several points in civilized society."

January 16, 1962 Look Magazine

...Western and Eastern Europe will become a federation of autonomus states having a socialist and democratic regime. With the exception of the USSR as a federated Eurasian state, all other continents will become united in a world alliance....In Jerusalem the United Nations, (a truly United Nations) will build a Shrine of the Prophets to serve the federated union of all continents