Protestantism

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This thread serves as a means to briefly outline the Protestant faith from a purely historical perspective. Including important events in the evolution of Protestantism.

Protestantism

General Information Protestantism is a movement in Western Christianity whose adherents reject the notion that divine authority is channeled through one particular human institution or person such as the Roman Catholic pope. Protestants look elsewhere for the authority of their faith. Most of them stress the Bible - the Hebrew Scriptures and the New Testament - as the source and the norm of their teaching. Roman Catholic and Eastern Orthodox Christians also stress the authority of the Bible, but they also look to tradition, and, in the case of Catholics, to the pope as a source of authority.



The Reformation

Although reform movements have been a feature of the Christian church throughout its history and were particularly evident in the 14th and 15th centuries, most Protestants date the beginning of their movement to 1517, when the German monk Martin Luther posted for debate a series of theses that challenged Roman Catholic teaching. Protestantism took its name from the "Protestatio" issued by reformers at the Diet of Speyer in 1529. Within two decades the Reformation had spread through most of northwest Europe. In England, King Henry VIII repudiated papal authority over the church, and the Church of England was set on a course of reform that made it essentially a Protestant body (although Anglicans, also called Episcopalians, are often classified separately). In Switzerland, France, parts of Germany, Scotland, and the Netherlands, a second style of non - Lutheran reform, influenced chiefly by the French - turned - Genevan John Calvin and the Swiss leader Ulrich Zwingli, began to take shape.


At the same time a more radical style of Protestantism appeared on the left wing of the movement. Anabaptists, Mennonites, and others rebaptized Christians and initiated them into a movement that drastically rejected Catholic practices even where Lutheranism, Calvinism, and Anglicanism did not.

The Reformation spread from these bases into Scandinavia and central Europe, but it rarely penetrated Russian and southeastern Europe, where the Orthodox church prevailed, or southern Europe, which remained staunchly Roman Catholic. After a series of religious wars from the mid 16th to the mid 17th century, most Protestants (except the radicals) and Catholics settled for the principle that the rulers of a region should determine the religion of that province or state. Separation of church and state, a principle that other Protestants came to hold late in the 18th century, began to break the purely Protestant hold on northwest Europe. In the latter part of the 18th century and throughout the 19th century into the present, Protestant missionaries spread the movement into most of the world.

Protestant beachheads were established on many Asian and African shores but not until recently in Catholic Latin America. From 1607, when Anglicans arrived in Virginia, until late in the 19th century, after large - scale immigration from southern Europe and Ireland, all of North America except Quebec was thought of as a largely Protestant domain.



The Authority of the Bible

Protestants have always made much of the Bible, but acceptance of its authority has not led to unanimity among them. Differing interpretations of the same Bible have produced the most divided movement of any in the great world religions, as hundreds of sects in at least a dozen great Protestant families of churches (Anglicanism, Congregationalism, Methodism, Presbyterianism, Lutheranism, the Baptist churches, and the like) compete in free societies. Attitudes toward the Bible in contemporary Protestantism range from belief in its literal truth on the fundamentalist end of the spectrum (Fundamentalism) to extremely free interpretations among liberal Protestants.

Justification by Faith

Second only to belief in the Bible as a mark of Protestantism is the conviction that humans are not saved by their merits or good works, as the 16th century reformers heard Catholics claiming, but only "by grace, through faith." According to Protestants, God took the initiative in saving the world from sin through his activity in Jesus Christ, and even the faith that led people to believe in this activity was a gift, not an achievement. Nonetheless, however consistent Protestant teaching on this subject may be, Protestant cultures have often produced earnest strivers after God - sober and hard - working people who try to prove that they are God's elect (Predestination) and preachers or other leaders who seem as legalistic in their approach to church life as the 16th century Catholics were.

Sacraments

Most Protestants share faith in the divine Trinity - God the Father, Son, and Holy Spirit; most of them keep alive the ancient creedal witness to the fact that Jesus Christ was and is both divine and human; most of them celebrate two Sacraments (sacred acts they believe were instituted by Christ): baptism and the Lords Supper. They are divided over whether to immerse the baptized in water or to apply water in other ways; over the age at which to baptize people, although most practice infant baptism; over whether baptism imparts grace or is a sign of response and obedience. Some Protestants believe that Jesus is somehow really present in the bread and wine of the Lord's Supper (Eucharist), whereas others consider this sacrament an act of remembrance and obedience.In their worship Protestants more than most other Christians stress the preaching of the Word of God as an agent for building faith.

Church Polity

Protestants allow for many styles of church government, from the episcopal, where bishops rule, to the congregational, which acknowledges no earthly authority beyond the local. Accenting "the priesthood of all believers," they have assigned an important role to the laity, although in practice many Protestant churches are quite clerical in outlook. Increasingly during the past century and especially in recent decades, Protestant churches have ordained women to the ministry and have encouraged them to take lay leadership roles. Protestantism, more than Roman Catholicism and Orthodoxy, has faced two recurrent problems. The first relates to the internal unity of the movement. From the Reformation until the present, Protestants have sought concord but more often than not have remained in dispute. In the 20th century, however, the Ecumenical Movement has gathered strength. In addition to the organic mergers of separate bodies that have taken place, movements of federation, councils for cooperation, and coalitions for common tasks have been formed.

The second problem involves civil authority. Orthodoxy and Catholicism found alliances with the throne congenial, but Protestants were restless about their early decisions to keep such alliances. Movements for religious toleration were most aggressive and successful in Protestant countries. The act of separating church and state (in most countries) has made it difficult for Protestants to produce coherent views of how Christians should live with both spiritual and civil responsibilities. This problem was presented in its most acute form in the dilemma of the Confessing church in Nazi Germany



Cultural Impact

The rejection of the Catholic tradition and in some instances a tendency toward iconoclasm militated against the development of a specifically Protestant style in the visual arts, although many great artists have been Protestants. In general the Protestant contribution has been a simplicity, even austerity, of design and decoration. This is particularly true of the Calvinist tradition. In music and literature the Protestant contribution has been enormous. The vernacular versions of the Bible, such as Luther's and the King James Version, played a formative role in the development of modern German and English literature. Emphasis on preaching and lack of strong centers of doctrinal authority contributed to a diversity of opinion and expression, as reflected, for example, in the work of John Milton. A strong musical tradition developed out of the encouragement of hymn singing and the use of the organ and other instruments, reaching its pinnacle in the work of Johann Sebastian Bach.

The lack of central authority and thus the acceptability of divergent views has also borne fruit in a rich theological tradition, which embraces such figures as Karl Barth, Rudolf Bultmann, and Paul Tillich in the 20th century.

Protestantism

Advanced Information

In its broadest sense Protestantism denotes the whole movement within Christianity that originated in the sixteenth century Reformation and later focused in the main traditions of Reformed church life. Lutheran, Reformed (Calvinist / Presbyterian), and Anglican - Episcopalian (although Anglicanism par excellence claims to be both Catholic and Protestant), Baptist, Methodist, Pentecostal, and many others, down to modern African Independent churches.

The term derives from the "protestation" submitted by a minority of Lutheran and Reformed authorities at the German Imperial Diet at Speyer in 1529 in dissenting from a clampdown on religious renewal. The "protestation" was at once objection, appeal, and affirmation. It asked urgently, "What is the true and holy Church?" and asserted: "There is no sure preaching or doctrine but that which abides by the Word of God. According to God's command no other doctrine should be preached. Each text of the holy and divine Scriptures should be elucidated and explained by other texts. This Holy Book is in all things necessary for the Christian; it shines clearly in its own light, and is found to enlighten the darkness. We are determined by God's grace and aid to abide by God's Word alone, the holy gospel contained in the biblical books of the Old and New Testaments. This Word alone should be preached, and nothing that is contrary to it. It is the only truth. It is the sure rule of all Christian doctrine and conduct. It can never fail or deceive us."

Lutherans and other advocates of reform thus became known as Protestants. The English word originally had the force of "resolute confession, solemn declaration," standing for gospel truth against Roman corruption. "Essentially Protestantism is an appeal to God in Christ, to Holy Scripture and to the primitive Church, against all degeneration and apostasy." The narrowing of "Protestant" to mean anti - or non - Roman has led some to prefer "Evangelical" (though in continental Europe this normally designates Lutherans) and "Reformed" (more commonly used of Calvinist Presbyterians).



Fundamental Principles

The fundamental principles of sixteenth century Protestantism included the following:

Soli deo Gloria

the justification of God's wisdom and power against papal usurpation and manmade religion, honoring God's sovereign transcendence and providential predestination.

Sola Gratia

redemption as God's free gift accomplished by Christ's saving death and resurrection. This was articulated chiefly in Pauline terms as justification by faith alone, as in the Augsburg Confession: "We cannot obtain forgiveness of sin and righteousness before God by our own merits, works or satisfactions, but receive forgiveness of sin and become righteous before God by grace, for Christ's sake, through faith, when we believe that Christ suffered for us and that for his sake our sin is forgiven and righteousness and eternal life are given to us." Assurance of salvation is therefore a mark of Protestant faith, grounded in the promise of the gospel and released from all pursuit of merit.

Sola Scriptura

the freedom of Scripture to rule as God's word in the church, disentangled from papal and ecclesiastical magisterium and tradition. Scripture is the sole source of Christian revelation. Although tradition may aid its interpretation, its true (i.e., spiritual) meaning is its natural (i.e., literal) sense, not an allegorical one.

The Church as the Believing People of God

constituted not by hierarchy, succession, or institution, but God's election and calling in Christ through the gospel. In the words of the Augsburg Confession, it is "the assembly of all believers among whom the gospel is preached in its purity and the holy sacraments are administered according to the gospel." The sacraments appointed by Christ are two only, baptism and the Lord's Supper, and may be spoken of as "visible words," reflecting the primacy of preaching in Protestant conviction.

The Priesthood of All Believers

the privileged freedom of all the baptized to stand before God in Christ "without patented human intermediaries" and their calling to be bearers of judgment and grace as "little Christs" to their neighbors. Pastor and preacher differ from other Christians by function and appointment, not spiritual status. (Later Protestantism has forgotten this perhaps more than any other foundation principle.)

The Sanctity of All Callings or Vocations

the rejection of medieval distinctions between secular and sacred or "religious" (i.e., monastic) with the depreciation of the former, and the recognition of all ways of life as divine vocations. "The works of monk and priest in God's sight are in no way whatever superior to a farmer laboring in the field, or a woman looking after her home" (Luther). None is intrinsically more Christian than any other, an insight obscured by phrases such as "the holy ministry."

Protestant Developments

Protestantism has developed a distinctive ethos in each of the several traditions derived from the Reformation and also within their historical, cultural, and geographical variations. On some issues, such as the manner (not the reality) of Christ's presence in the Supper, Protestants have disagreed from a very early stage, while agreeing in rejecting transubstantiation and the sacrifice of the Mass and insisting that living faith alone feeds upon Christ's flesh and blood. On others, such as church order, diversity of practice has not always involved disagreement in principle. In this and other areas Protestantism's scriptural principle has itself been articulated in different ways, both to sanction the retention of traditions (e.g., episcopacy) not repugnant to Scripture (a typically Lutheran and Anglican approach) and to debar from the church's life anything not explicitly warranted in Scripture (a tendency of Reformed Protestantism implemented most consistently by Puritanism and some derivative traditions). Nothing has so much promoted the disunity of Protestantism as the inroads of post - Enlightenment rationalism and its offspring in theological liberalism and modernism, which have gravely eroded Protestantism's Reformation and biblical foundations.

Another pattern of Reformation in the sixteenth century, generally called Anabaptist or Radical despite its diversity, sought to restore the precise shape of apostolic Christianity. Pentecostalism has a similar aim, along with other movements, including some Baptists and (Plymouth) Brethren. Some African Independent churches have pursued a restorationist approach even to the OT. Although Anabaptism gave birth to no major Protestant tradition (but note the Mennonites), its rejection of the Constantinian state - church and all its works (endorsed unreservedly by all three primary Protestant traditions) became in time the common property of most of Protestantism, especially outside Europe. (E Troeltsch has stressed the revolutionary significance of later Protestantism's abandonment of its early ideal of all - embracing church - civilization, a reformed Christendom.) The Anabaptist "protestation," though persecuted by the authoritarian Protestants, Lutheran, Reformed, and Anglican, is increasingly regarded as a parallel pattern of pristine Protestantism, with perhaps more to contribute to its future than any other pattern.

Despite its divisions the community of Protestantism is still discernible in cross - denominational movements, e.g., missionary expansion, Bible translation, biblical criticism and modern theological study, welfare and relief agencies, and the ecumenical movement itself. Protestants are also held together by common convictions, chief among them the acceptance of the Reformation as an indispensable part of their history. For no Protestants does this exclude a lineage going back tothe apostles, but continuity with patristic and medieval Christianity would be variously prized in different Protestant traditions.

Protestantism's scriptural principle finds expression in the axiom Ecclesia reformata sed semper reformanda, "a church reformed but always open to further reformation." Subjection to the word of God means that no traditions or institutions, secular or religious, not even Reformation or Protestant ones, can be absolutized. Paul Tillich regarded "the Protestant principle" as "the prophetic judgment against religious pride, ecclesiastical arrogance and secular self - sufficiency and their destructive consequences." This was nobly exemplified in the Barmen Declaration of the Confessing Church in Nazi Germany ("Confessing" here being a good modern synonym of sixteenth century "Protestant"). Intellectually, "the co - operation of uninhibited inquiry and religious faith, of theology and science, is possible only on Protestant territory where all human traditions and institutions stand open both to man's scrutiny and to God's" (J H Nichols).

Finally, Protestantism seeks to draw its life from the gospel of God's grace in Christ. True to its heritage it can tolerate no do - it - yourself Christianity, no ground for human self - confidence before God's face. It will ultimately always value the Christ of faith more than the church of history.

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Canons of Dordt (or Synod of Dort)

General Information The Canons of Dordrecht are often combined with two other Protestant Christian documents, the Heidelberg Catechism and the Belgic Confession of Faith, in forming the basis of Faith for many Churches, especially Reformed Churches. Among these three documents, the Canons of Dort are unique in being the only one of the three confessions which was actually composed by an ecclesiastical assembly, the Great Synod of 1618-1619.

Internal controversy in the Reformed Churches of the Netherlands which was occasioned by the rise of the Arminian heresy, caused the assembly of the synod. The Canons are the expression of the Synod's judgment concerning the Five Points of the Remonstrance. This also explains the fact that the Canons are divided into five chapters, maintaining the truths of sovereign predestination, particular atonement, total depravity, irresistible grace, and perseverance of saints.

Because the Canons are an answer to the Five Points of the Remonstrance, they set forth only certain aspects of the truth rather than the whole body of the truth, as do the other two confessions. For this reason also the Canons are referred to in a Formula of Subscription as "the explanation of some points" of the doctrine contained in the Heidelberg Catechism and the Belgic Confession of Faith.

Synod of Dort

Advanced Information (1618-1619)

The Synod of Dort was an international church assembly called by the States General of the Netherlands to settle certain ecclesiastical and doctrinal matters that had been troubling the Reformed Church of the Netherlands. It consisted of thirty-five pastors and a number of elders from the Dutch churches, five theological professors from the Netherlands, eighteen deputies from the States General, and twenty-seven foreign delegates.

The problems that faced the synod were complex. First, it had to deal with the ancient problem of Erastianism, the control of the church by the state. The Dutch church was by confession Calvinistic. It was Calvin's conviction that the church should be independent of the state while cooperating with it. By 1554 he had won that battle in Geneva, but until the time of Dort, and later, the Dutch church had in it a strong element, including such leaders as Oldenbarneveldt, Grotius, and Coolhaas, which favored state control over the church. Thus even the Prince of Orange in 1575 gave an order that consistories were to be appointed by local magistrates, a view which had wide support.

A second problem with which Dort had to wrestle was an anticonfessional humanism that was more hellenistic than biblical in spirit. Erasmus and Coornheert were its heroes. Although these men lived well before the meeting of the synod, their rejection of the doctrine of human depravity and adulation of free will was accepted by the Arminian party, named after James Arminius, a professor of theology at the University of Leiden. A major issue before the synod was the status of the creeds. The Arminian party, while having to admit that the church had a confession, disliked confessional confinement and sought to have the creeds revised.

The third problem with which Dort had to wrestle was one of fundamental Christian doctrine. Predestination was the doctrine most attacked, especially that part of it known as reprobation. The Arminian party was helped in its attack by extreme positions of some of its opponents. Furthermore, in their Remonstrance of 1610 and afterward the Arminian party, whose proponents then came to be called "Remonstrants," was unwilling to say that man is totally unable to save himself; it held rather that, while human nature has been impaired by sin, the will is still free and able to respond to the grace of God. It claimed that God determined to save all who believe, and it refused to accept the teaching that election is unto faith. It held that Christ died for all even though only believers benefit from his death; that grace is not irresistible; and that faith may be lost. Besides publicy challenging the doctrines of predestination, sin, grace, and the perseverance of the saints, the Remonstrants indicated that they were unsure of other doctrine as well; original sin, justification by faith, the atonement, and even the deity of Christ were called into question. That they doubted Christ's deity is not a well-known historical fact, but it contributed to the seriousness and bitterness of the controversy. It was not until after the death of Arminius in 1609 that the drift toward Socinianism, a version of Unitarianism, became noticeable. The appointment of Conrad Vorstius to the chair of theology at Leiden vacated by Arminius aroused suspicions; in 1622 he made his espousal of Socinianism public.

As a result of all this a strong party spirit developed throughout the country which threatened to split the church and provinces of the Netherlands. Arminian leaders got civil authorities to decree that no contested doctrines might be preached, and in some instances succeeded in getting pulpits closed against ministers. Reformed classes retaliated, and where the contra-Remonstrants, or orthodox, could not get a majority they sometimes worshiped in houses or barns, only to be punished by civil authorities. The situation deteriorated until it appeared in 1617 that there might be civil war. On November 11 of that year the States General decreed that a synod should be called to settle the questions troubling the country and bring it to peace. There had been numerous earlier calls for a national synod by classes, by the Remonstrants when they thought they might have a majority if the States General would select delegates, and by provincial synods and civil authorities.

When the Synod of Dort met in 1618, the Remonstrants expected that they would be recognized as equals and that the synod would be a conference to discuss disputed questions. Instead, the synod summoned the Remonstrants to appear before it as defendants, and in due time their doctrines were condemned. The Canons of Dort set forth: (1) Unconditional election and faith are a gift of God. (2) While the death of Christ is abundantly sufficient to expiate the sins of the whole world, its saving efficacy is limited to the elect. (3,4) All are so corrupted by sin that they cannot effect their salvation; in sovereign grace God calls and regenerates them to newness of life. (5) Those thus saved he preserves until the end; hence there is assurance of salvation even while believers are troubled by many infirmities.

Dort thus preserved the Augustinian, biblical doctrines of sin and grace against the claim that fallen mankind has free will, that the human condition in sin is not as desperate as the orthodox party said it is, and that election is only God's response to man's decision to believe. It was such a prestigious gathering that it served as an example for the Westminister Assembly, which was held in Britain a generation later, and it set the course which the Dutch church was to follow for centuries.

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The Belgic (or Netherlands) Confession of Faith

General Information Often, three Protestant Christian documents are used together as the basis of Faith for many Churches, particularly Reformed Churches. The Belgic Confession is historically the first of the three, the others being the Heidelberg Catechism and the Canons of Dordt (or Dort). It is called the Belgic Confession because it was written in the southern Lowlands, now known as Belgium. Its chief author was Guido de Bräs, one of a number of itinerant preachers. Due to religious persecution, he died a martyr's death in 1567.

Philip II, of Spain, severely persecuted Reformed believers in the Lowlands as revolutionaries. The Belgic Confession was written by de Bräs in 1561 primarily as a testimony to the Spanish king to prove that the Reformed believers were not rebels, as was charged, but law-abiding citizens who professed only those doctrines which were the teachings of Holy Scripture. In 1562 a copy was sent to the Spanish king, accompanied by a petition for relief from persecution, in which the petitioners declared that they were ready to obey the government in all lawful things, although they would "offer their backs to stripes, their tongues to knives, their mouths to gags, and their whole bodies to fire," rather than deny the truth of God's Word.


The Confession and the petition had no effect on the Spanish authorities. However, it served well as a means of instruction of Reformed believers and thus became an expression of the faith of a people enduring suffering for Christ's sake. This is also reflected in its language. For while this confession follows the objective doctrinal order in its articles, its profoundly personal element is evident from the fact that every article begins with such words as, "We believe...," "We believe and confess...," or, "We all believe with the heart and confess with the mouth...."


In its composition, de Bräs availed himself to some extent of a confession of the Reformed churches in France, written chiefly by John Calvin, published two years earlier. The work of de Bräs, however, is not a mere revision of Calvin's work, but an independent composition. In 1566 the text of this confession was revised at a synod held at Antwerp. In the Netherlands it was at once gladly received by the churches, and it was adopted by national synods held during the last three decades of the sixteenth century. The text, not the contents, was revised again at the Synod of Dort (Dordrecht) in 1618-19 and adopted as one of the doctrinal standards to which all officebearers in the Reformed churches were required to subscribe. The confession stands as one of the best symbolical statements of Reformed doctrine. The translation presented here is based on the French text of 1619.

Belgic Confession of Faith Advanced Information (1561)

Sometimes known as the Walloon Confession, this was composed in 1561 by Guido de Bres as an apology for the persecuted band of Reformed Christians in the Lowlands who formed the so-called churches under the cross. Translated from French into Dutch in 1562, it gained synodical approval at Antwerp in 1566, at Wesel in 1568, at Emden in 1571, and definitively at Dordrecht in 1618. Together with the Heidelberg Catechism and the Canons of Dort, it provided the confessional foundation for all Dutch Reformed churches, and remains binding still today for members of the Christian Reformed Church in North America. De Bres, a courageous pastor to French-speaking communities in the Lowlands who was martyred at Valenciennes in 1567, modeled his work on the so-called Gallic Confession adopted for all French Reformed churches at Paris in 1559.

Like Calvin's Institutes, the text breaks down roughly into three parts: the truine God and the knowledge of him from Scripture (Arts. 1-9), Christ's work of creation and redemption (10-23), and the Spirit's work of sanctification in and through the Christian church (24-37), this last part subdivided again in Calvin. De Bres quoted Scripture liberally and often used the pronoun "we" to personalize this confession of faith. To distinguish his community from the feared and "detested" Anabaptists (with whom Catholics had often confused them), de Bres asserted the full humanity of Jesus Christ (18), the public rather than sectarian nature of the true church (28-29), infant baptism (34), and the God-given character of civil government (36).

As for the Catholics, who had brought the Inquisition down upon them, de Bres sought to find as many common beliefs as possible, especially the Trinity (1, 8, 9), the incarnation (10, 18, 19), and a catholic Christian church (27-29). But he also upheld distinctively Protestant emphases such as the unique authority of Scripture apart from the Apocrypha (3-7), the all-sufficiency of Christ's atoning sacrifice and intercession (21-23, 26), and the nature of good works (24) and of the two sacraments, Holy Baptism and the Holy Supper (34-35). Distinctively Reformed elements may be found in the articles on election (16), sanctification (24), the government of the church (30-32), and the Lord's Supper (35). There is no evidence that the Catholic authorities ever seriously read or were impressed by this little work, but Reformed Christians in the Lowlands quickly adopted it as their own confession of faith.

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The Heidelberg Catechism, Palatinate Catechism

General Information The Heidelberg Catechism is often grouped together with two other Protestant Christian documents, the Belgic Confession and the Canons of Dordt, as the basis of Faith for many Churches, particularly Reformed Churches. It received its name from the place of its origin, Heidelberg, the capital of the German Electorate of the Palatinate. There, in order that the Reformed faith might be maintained in his domain, Elector Frederick III commissioned Zacharias Ursinus, professor at Heidelberg University, and Caspar Olevianus, the court preacher, to prepare a manual for catechetical instruction. Out of this initiative came the Catechism, which was approved by the Elector himself and by the Synod of Heidelberg and first published in 1563.

With its comfort motif and its warm, personal style, the Catechism soon won the love of the people of God, as is evident from the fact that more editions of the Catechism had to be printed that same year. While the first edition had 128 questions and answers, in the second and third editions, at the behest of the Elector, the eightieth question and answer, which refers to the popish mass as an accursed idolatry, was added. In the third edition the 129 questions and answers were divided into 52 "Lord's Days" with a view to the Catechism's being explained in one of the services on the Lord's Day. That salutary practice is still maintained today, in harmony with the prescription of the Church Order of Dordrecht.

In the Netherlands the Heidelberg Catechism was translated into the Dutch language as early as 1566, and it soon became widely loved and used in the churches there. It was adopted by several National Synods during the later sixteenth century, and was finally included by the Synod of Dordrecht, 1618-1619, where it has remained to this day.

The Heidelberg Catechism

Advanced Information (1563)

Catechisms usually have three functions: instruction for all ages, preparatory training for confirmation, and the statement of a confessional position. The Heidelberg Catechism fulfills these three functions.

The Palatinate, south and west of Mainz, became Lutheran in 1546 under Elector Frederick II, but soon Calvinist ideas spread into the area and a series of acrimonious theological disputes broke out over the issue of the "real presence" in Holy Communion. When Frederick III the Pious (1515-76) inherited the area, he was aware of the disputes and studied both sides of the "real presence" argument. He came to the conclusion that Article XI of the Augsburg Confession was popish and opted for a Calvinist position. To foster his position, even though he was opposed by other Lutheran princes who pressured him to support the Peace of Augsburg, which did not recognize the Reformed position, Frederick staffed the theological faculty of the Collegium Sapientiae in Heidelberg, his capital, with those of Reformed persuasion, and he began to reform the worship of the churches in the Palatinate. In an effort to reconcile the theological parties, to bring about reform, and to defend himself against the Lutheran princes, Frederick asked the theological faculty to draw up a new catechism which could be used in the schools as a manual of instruction, a guide for preaching, and a confession of faith. Although many of the theological faculty were involved, as was Frederick himself, the two commonly acknowledged architects of the catechism were Caspar Olevianus and Zacharias Ursinus. The German text, with a preface by Frederick III, was adopted by a synod in Heidelberg on January 19, 1653. It was translated into Latin at the time of its publication.

The catechism is important for at least three reasons. (1) It came to be translated into numerous languages and was adopted by many groups, making it the most popular of Reformed statements. (2) Although born in the midst of theological controversy, it is irenic in spirit, moderate in tone, devotional and practical in attitude. It espouses Reformed theology as dictated by Frederick III, but Lutheran ideas were not slighted. The avoidance of polemics in the catechism, except for question 80, the use of clear language, and a sense of fervency helped to allay somewhat the theological controversies of that time and to guarantee an acceptance among the Reformed outside the Palatinate. (3) The organization of the catechism is most unusual. The 129 questions and answers are divided into three parts patterned after the book of Romans. Questions 1-11 deal with mankind's sin and misery; questions 12-85 are concerned with the redemption in Christ and faith; the last questions stress man's gratitude, expressed in action and obedience, for God's love. The questions are further structured so that the whole catechism can be covered in fifty-two Sundays. In addition, the catechism provides an exposition of the Reformed view of the Apostles' Creed and the Ten Commandments. The use of the first person singular encourages the catechism to be a personal confession of faith.

The Reformed theological perspective is found (1) in the doctrine of the sacraments, particularly the Eucharist, where believers are partakers in the true body and blood of Christ through the working of the Holy Spirit; (2) in the centrality of Scripture as authority; (3) in good works as the Christian response to divine grace; and (4) in the church as the true source of Christian discipline. The issue of predestination is found in question 54, where election is affirmed but reprobation and limited atonement are not. An example of Lutheran concepts is found in the section on man's sinful condition.

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The Second Helvetic Confession of Faith

Also, the First Helvetic Confession of Faith

Also, the Confession of Basel

General Information The Confession of Basel is the designation applied to either of two pronouncements of doctrinal belief in the Swiss Reformed Church. The First Confession of Basel was drafted in 1531 by the German theologian Johannes Oecolampadius, who presented it to the Synod of Basel in 1534. It represented a compromise between the doctrines of Martin Luther and those of the Swiss theologian Huldreich Zwingli. The confession remained in effect until 1872.

The Second Confession of Basel, known more correctly as the First Helvetic Confession, was adopted in 1536. To a greater extent than the First Confession of Basel, it expressed the doctrines of Zwingli. It was modified by the Second Helvetic Confession (1566) and adopted as a declaration of doctrine by most European Reformed churches. The Second did not replace the First Helvetic Confession in Basel itself.

The Second Helvetic Confession of Faith


Historical Note

(provided by the Reformed Church)

The word "Helvetic" is Latin for "Swiss." The setting of the Second Helvetic Confession is Swiss-German Reformed Protestantism.

After the great Reformer Ulrich Zwingli died in battle in 1531, Heinrich Bullinger succeeded him as minister of the church in Zurich. Bullinger was a model Reformed minister. A preacher, he expounded Scripture at least twice a week. A scholar, he wrote Latin commentaries on many books of the Old Testament and on every book of the New Testament except Revelation. An educator, he initiated a system of schools for Zurich and was rector of the Carolinum, a theological academy. A person with ecumenical and political concerns, he was in correspondence with leaders of the Reformation and with rulers throughout Europe. A pastor, he welcomed religious refugees into his own home. When the plague swept through Zurich in 1564, he insisted upon ministering to the afflicted, even though he knew he might become infected and die. In 1561, Bullinger composed the document that later became known as the Second Helvetic Confession. He intended to attach it to his last will and testament to the Zurich church, but events in Germany soon brought it into the public arena.

The publication of the Heidelberg Catechism created trouble for the man who had ordered its preparation. Lutherans considered it too Reformed in spirit, and they demanded that Frederick the Elector, governor of the Palatinate, be brought to trial for heresy. Not a theologian himself, Frederick turned to Bullinger, who offered Frederick this confession as the basis for his defense. When the Imperial Diet, the ruling body of Germany, met for trial in 1566, Frederick was exonerated.

Meanwhile, the churches of Switzerland adopted Bullinger's confession as their new confession of faith. Soon finding wide acceptance throughout Europe and beyond, it was translated into French, English, Dutch, Polish, Hungarian, Italian, Arabic, and Turkish.

Reflecting the theological maturity of the Reformed churches, the Second Helvetic Confession is moderate in tone and catholic in spirit. From the opening paragraphs it emphasizes the church and its life and affirms the authority of the Scriptures for the church's government and reformation. By including an article on predestination, the confession asks the church to trust in God's free and gracious election of its membership in Jesus Christ. At the same time, the confession addresses the practical life of the gathered community, detailing matters of worship, church order and conflict, ministry, the sacraments, and marriage.

Helvetic Confessions of Faith

Advanced Information The First Helvetic Confession (Confessio Helvetica prior) is the same as the Second Confession of Basel. The First Confession of Basel was written in 1534 and had acceptance only in Basel and Muhlausen. This fact of limited acceptance was characteristic of the Swiss in the 1520s-30s; they had no common confession.

Pope Paul III's call for a general council, the desire for some accommodation with the Lutherans, and the need for a common Swiss confession in preparation for the council prompted the magistrates of the Swiss cities to send delegates to Basel in 1536 to draw up a new confession. Bullinger, Oswald Myconius, Simon Grynaeus, and Leo Jud were asked to prepare the confession. Their efforts to effect an accommodation with the Lutherans did not succeed. The first draft appeared to be too Lutheran to some, and to others the doctrine of the "real presence" in the Lord's Supper was too Zwinglian. In the end, the twenty-seven articles of the first Reformed creed of "national" authority was not accepted by the Lutherans, although Luther viewed it with favor, and it was rejected by Strasbourg under Capito's leadership, and by Constance.

The issue of the "real presence" in the Lord's Supper was basically resolved for the Swiss in 1549 when Calvin and Farel visited Bullinger and they worked out the Zurich Consensus. From this point on the Zwinglian movement and the Calvinists were effectively one.

The Second Helvetic Confession began as Bullinger's personal confession written in Latin in 1562. Peter Martyr Vermigli read it shortly before his death and agreed with it, a good sign for its ultimate acceptance in the Reformed faith. In 1564 the plague broke out in Zurich, Bullinger's wife and three daughters died from it, and Bullinger contracted the disease but recovered. While the plague raged, he revised his 1562 confession and set it with his will to be delivered to the city magistrate in the event of his death.

Frederick III the Pious had come under attack for his Reformed position as seen in his church reforms in the Palatinate and in the publishing of the Heidelberg Catechism. He was accused by his Lutheran allies of being a heretic. So in 1565, in order to defend himself, he asked Bullinger to supply him with a clear exposition of the Reformed faith. Bullinger sent him a copy of his 1564 confession. Frederick was so pleased, he asked for and got permission from Bullinger to translate the confession into German. This was done prior to Frederick's appearance at the Imperial Diet in Augsburg in 1566.

At the same time the Swiss again felt the need for a new common confession, and a conference was called to meet in Zurich. Bullinger's confession was considered and a few changes were made in it, to which Bullinger consented. It was published in German and Latin on March 12, 1566, and had the approval of Berne, Biel, Geneva, The Grisons, Muhlhausen, Schaffhausen, and St. Gall. This Second Helvetic Confession (Confessio Helvetica posterior) was soon translated into a number of languages ranging from French to Arabic and was adopted by the Scots in 1566, the Hungarians in 1567, the French in 1571, and the Poles in 1578. The same month in which the confession was adopted at Zurich, Frederick III appeared before the Diet and so defended his position that he was not tried for heresy.

Due to its origin as Bullinger's personal confession, which followed the order of the twenty-seven articles of the First Helvetic Confession, the Second Helvetic Confession is really a theological treatise with thirty chapters and over twenty thousand words. This lengthy scholarly statement shows the consistency of the Reformed position with that of the Greek and Latin church fathers. Although the confession accepts the ecumenical creeds, it does not accept the primacy of Rome. Scripture is given primacy, and this is shown by the fact that the first two chapters emphasize that belief. Scripture is God's Word, which has precedence over the church fathers, councils, and church tradition. Chapters III-V deal with God, his unity, his trinity, the problem of idols, images, and with God's proper worship. The doctrine of providence and creation are the topics of chapters VI-VII, while chapters VIII-XI cover the fall, free will, predestination, where election to reprobation is not mentioned, and Christ as the true God-man and only Savior of the world. The next five chapters generally cover the way of salvation and the new life in Christ. Chapter XII discusses the law of God; XIII the gospel of Christ; XIV the repentance and conversion of mankind; XV justification of faith; XVI faith and good works where good works are done out of gratitude for God's grace and not for merit. Chapters XVII-XXI present the Reformed position on the church, the role of the ministry, and the two sacraments, baptism and the Lord's Supper. The last nine chapters cover church ordinances; XXII is on religious and ecclesiastical meetings; XXIII deals with prayers and singing; XXIV with holy days and fasting; XXV catechizing and visiting the sick; XXVI burial; XXVII rites and ceremonies; XXVIII possessions of the church; XXIX marriage and celibacy; and XXX the magistry, where the taking up of arms is affirmed but only in selfdefense and as a last resort.

The Heidelberg Catechism and the Second Helvetic Confession are the two most widely adopted and authoritative of the Reformed statements of faith.

Source

[Prussian]

Puritan Confession of Faith

(1647)

Outline

Note: In 1677, the Second London Confession of Faith eliminated several chapters near the end that tended to mix Church and state, and those Chapters are noted appropriately in the outline below.

The Westminster Assembly (so called because of its meeting place) was summoned by the English Parliament in 1643. Its mission was to advise Parliament in restructing the Church of England along Puritan lines. To the assembly were invited 121 ministers (the "divines"), 10 members of the House of Lords, 20 of the Commons, plus 8 nonvoting (but influential) representatives of Scotland, which was allied to the English Parliament by a treaty, the "Solemn League and Covenant." Different views of church government were represented, presbyterianism being the dominant position. On theological matters, however, there was virtual unanimity in favor of a strong Calvinistic position, unequivocally rejecting what the assembly saw as the errors of Arminianism, Roman Catholicism, and sectarianism.

The assembly's Confession of Faith, completed in December, 1646, is the last of the classic Reformed confessions and by far the most influential in the English-speaking world. Though it governed the Church of England only briefly, it has been widely adopted (sometimes with amendments) by British and American Presbyterian bodies as well as by many Congregational and Baptist churches. It is well known for its thoroughness, precision, conciseness, and balance. Notable elements are: (1) The opening chapter on Scripture, called by Warfield the best single chapter in any Protestant confession. (2) The mature formulation of the Reformed doctrine of predestination (chs. III, V, IX, XVII). It is noncommittal on the debate between supra- and infralapsarianism, but teaches clearly that God's will is the ultimate cause of all things, including human salvation. It teaches the doctrine of reprobation in very guarded terms (III. vii. viii.). It is careful to balance this teaching with a chapter on human freedom (IX). (3) The emphasis on covenants as the way in which God relates to his people through history (VII, esp.). (4) Its doctrine of redemption structured according to God's acts (X-XIII) and human response (XIV-XVII), thus underscoring its "covenantal" balance between divine sovereignty and human responsibility. (5) Its Puritan doctrine of assurance (XVIII), a strong affirmation, yet more sensitive than other Reformed confessions to the subjective difficulties believers have in maintaining a conscious assurance. (6) Its strong affirmation of the law of God as perpetually binding the conscience of the believer, even though certain ceremonial and civil statutes are no longer in effect (XIX), balanced by a careful formulation of the nature of Christian liberty of conscience (XX). (7) Its Puritan view of the sabbath, regarding the day as a perpetual obligation, contrary to Calvin's Institutes and other Reformed writings. (8) The first clear confessional distinction between the visible and invisible church (XXV).

After the Westminster Assembly completed its work on the confession, it focused its attention on preparation of a catechism. Its early attempts were frustrated, and a consensus developed that two catechisms would be needed, "one more exact and comprehensive, another more easier and short for new beginners." The Larger was intended for pulpit exposition, while the Shorter was intended for the instruction of children. These were completed, the Shorter in 1647 and the Larger in 1648. Both function as official standards of doctrine in many denominations today within the Reformed tradition. The Larger has, to a considerable extent, fallen into disuse, while the Shorter has been greatly used and loved, though many have found it too difficult to be an effective teaching aid for children.

The theology of the catechisms is the same as that of the confession. The catechisms (especially the Shorter) also share the confession's conciseness, precision, balance, and thoroughness. Neither breathes the warm, personal spirit of the Heidelberg Catechism, but it may be argued that some of the answers are equally memorable and edifying. Both are structured in two parts: (1) what we are to believe concerning God, and (2) what duty God requires of us. The first part recapitulates the basic teaching of the confession on God's nature, his creative and redemptive work. The second part contains (a) exposition of the Decalogue, (b) the doctrine of faith and repentance, and (c) the means of grace (word, sacrament, prayer, concluding with an exposition of the Lord's Prayer).

The Larger is sometimes thought to be overdetailed, even legalistic, in its exposition of the law. One emerges with an enormous list of duties that are difficult to relate to the simple commands of the Decalogue. There is truth in such criticisms, but those who urge them often fail to realize the importance of applying scriptual principles authoritatively to current ethical questions. Whatever we may think of their conclusions, the Westminster divines provide us with a good example of zealousness at that task.

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Augsburg Confession (1530)

General Information The Augsburg Confession is a Lutheran Confession of Faith that was issued (1530) during the Reformation at the Diet of Augsburg. In 1530, Emperor Charles V convoked the diet as part of his effort to bring religious peace to Europe. He failed in his efforts, however, because he underestimated the fervor with which the followers of Martin Luther had already formulated a distinctive position. Philipp Melanchthon, one of the authors of the Confession, designed it to be relatively open to the Roman Catholic church on the right and to other reformed but non-Lutheran parties on the left. It affirmed inherited classic Christian doctrines. Its particular stress on Grace, as Luther had interpreted it in the writings of St. Paul, and its rejection of any righteousness based on human works and merits made it unacceptable to many other Western Christians. The Confession remains the primary statement of faith among Lutherans, who to this day expect their ministers at ordination to express fidelity to the way it interprets the biblical teachings.

The Augsburg Confession is the basic Lutheran confession of faith or statement of what is believed in loyalty to Christ and his Word. It was presented at the Diet of Augsburg in 1530. Philip Melanchthon was its author, but its teachings are clearly those of Martin Luther.

Charles V called a diet, or convention, of the rulers of the Holy Roman Empire to meet in Augsburg in 1530. The emperor was staunchly Roman Catholic and wanted the empire to be loyal to Romanism. He directed those rulers supporting different teachings to present statements of what they believed. Charles wanted religious unity so that the empire could present a united front against foreign enemies, especially the Turks.

Lutheran theologians drafted various preliminary documents, including the Marburg, Schwabach, and Torgau Articles. Luther had a hand in their preparation, but he could not attend the diet. He had been outlawed by the Edict of Worms (1521), and the Elector of Saxony could not protect him at Augsburg. Since he had been declared a heretic, his presence would have shifted the focus away from doctrinal issues. His martyrdom would have served no purpose. Luther remained at the Coburg but was in constant correspondence with those in Augsburg.

Luther's co-worker, Philip Melanchthon, produced the final draft of the Augsburg Confession. At that time he was in doctrinal agreement with Luther, who approved of the confession wholeheartedly. Luther did note that it might have dealt with a few more errors and abuses, and that he would not have used such a mild tone. The doctrine of the confession is clearly that of the Reformer himself.

The Augsburg Confession was read publicly at the diet in German on the afternoon of June 25, 1530, by Chancellor Christian Beyer of Electoral Saxony. Both the German and the Latin copies were handed in as official. Melanchton altered later editions, partly to render it ambiguous on points such as the real presence of Christ's body and blood in the Lord's Supper. He was inclined to compromise on doctrinal issues. That is why Gnesio-Lutherans have often referred to the Unaltered Augsburg Confession. The Augsburg Confession was included in the Book of Concord (1580) as the basic Lutheran confession.

The Augsburg Confession was signed by seven princes and representatives of two independent cities. They believed that the doctrine it taught was biblical and true. They were the ones to sign it because the diet was precisely a convention of the rulers of the empire. But the confession was not intended to present the teachings of some governmental authority. It stated what was being taught in the churches in those parts of Germany. The first article begins: "The churches among us teach with great consensus..."(Latin text).

In addition to a preface and a brief conclusion the Augsburg Confession has twenty-eight articles. The first twenty-one present the Lutheran teaching and reject contrary doctrines. The last seven reject abuses in Christian life. The confession is too brief fully to present the biblical proof or the testimony of previous theologians. In response to a Roman Catholic answer, the Confutation, Melanchthon published in 1531 the Apology of the Augsburg Confession, which deals with the controverted issues at greater length.

To discuss the teachings of the Augsburg Confession at length would constitute a theology textbook. We can at best give some idea of what it says. It teaches the Trinity; original sin as true sin that would condemn if not forgiven; the deity and humanity of Jesus; his sacrifice for all human sin; justification by grace through faith without our works; the gospel, baptism, and the Lord's Supper as actual tools of the Holy Spirit to create and sustain faith; good works as a result, not a cause, of salvation, motivated by the good news that salvation has been earned for us by Christ. Much more could be said, but this indicates that the Augsburg Confession simply teaches the position which Lutherans consider biblical.

The abuses corrected include various false ideas and practices in the Lord's Supper; clerical celibacy; the misuse of confession and absolution; the dietary laws of medieval Romanism; and the idea of a hierarchy in visible Christendom having divine authority in matters of conscience.

Source

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The Protestant Reformation

An online resource that covers Lutheran Reformations, Reformed Refomations, Radical Reformations, English Reformation, Scottish Reformation & so fourth.

[Prussian]

Catholic source on Protestantism

Protestantism

I. ORIGIN OF THE NAME The Diet of the Holy Roman Empire, assembled at Speyer in April, 1529, resolved that, according to a decree promulgated at the Diet of Worms (1524), communities in which the new religion was so far established that it could not without great trouble be altered should be free to mainta