I.
Contemporary Croatian public is certainly well aware of the religious, moral and political support given by the Holy See, especially during the Yugo-Serbian military aggression against the Republic of Croatia, and the very fact that it was today's Pope John Paul II who was the first to recognise a modern Croatian state. It was the next day that the European Twelve recognised Croatia, as well, followed by 40 more countries We can still remember quite clearly that it was the Holy Father, John Paul II, who promoted the inalienable right for all to self-determination and freedom and for the Croats, too. Therefore, he stands today as a moral example to all. The Holy Father John Paul II, when visiting a democratic and sovereign state and the Roman Catholic Church in Croatia (on September 10 and 11, 1994), celebrated together with the Croatian people the 900th anniversary of the establishment of the Zagreb Archdiocese, thus in a special way confirmed his permanent friendship with our people and our state. The Croats are proudly expecting this year's visit of the Holy Father John Paul II that will take place on October 2nd and 3rd. It is during the visit that the Pope will officially proclaim sanctified a holy person, the late Cardinal Alojzije Stepinac. He was the Archbishop of Zagreb and died a martyr’s death, thus becoming a symbol of all-Croatian suffering and anguish. The ceremony will be held in Marija Bistrica, a Croatian national holy place. It is known that the Parliament of the Republic of Croatia, today named the Croatian State Parliament, has rehabilitated Cardinal Stepinac (on February 4, 1992), and thus revoked the sentence after an unjust conviction of the former Yugo-Communist government and its court, as of October 11, 1946. The reason for such a sentence was the fact that he refused to form a so-called "Croatian Church", separated from the Holy See and / or the Roman Catholic Pope himself.
However, many well-preserved historical documents permanently testify to a long-term friendship, as well as multiple relations between the Holy See and the Croatian people in all walks of life, both social and political (since the turn of the 7th century B.C. / i.e. since Croats arrived to their current homeland extending from "the rivers Drava and Danube to the Adriatic Sea"). The first written documents of diplomatic relations between the Croats and the Holy See date back to Pope John IV, who was himself a Dalmatian, of Salona (Salonae) origin near Split. He was the head of the Church in the middle of the 7th century (i.e. from 640-42), and was extremely interested in establishing co-operation between young European states (including Croatia) with the Roman Catholic cultural heritage, dating back to the early period of Christianity. A document has been found which says that "Pope John IV, by nationality a Dalmatian sent an abbot by the name of Martin with a great deal of ransom money to go throughout Dalmatia and Istria and liberate captive Christians from pagan slavery, and to unearth the relics of Christian martyrs from the era of Emperor Diocletian’s persecutions." After successfully completing the task, i.e. excavating the remains of St. Anastasia, St. Maurus, St. Venancuis and others, and taking them to Rome, the same Pope had them solemnly buried in the new baptistery of the Lateran Basilica.
The mid-seventh century, likewise, marked the beginning of the conversion process of Croats to Christianity. Along with many other documents, we would like to mention the works of the Byzantine emperor and writer Constantine Porphyrogenitus and the Split Archdeacon Thomas. In his famous work "De administrando imperio" ("About Imperial Administration"), Porphyrogenitus has three different reports related to the conversion of Croats to Christianity. According to the oldest report they accepted Christianity as early as the first decade of the 7th C. (i.e. during the reign of the Byzantine Emperor Herclius, from 610-41 AD). He emphasised the fact that the Croats had already moved to the area between the River Drava and the Adriatic at the time mentioned, and also tried to connect the very act with the reconstruction of the Split Metropolis. Additionally, the Split Archdeacon Thomas, in his work "Historia Salonitanorum" ("The History of the Salone and Split Archdioceses"), said the Pope (however, he mentioned his name) had sent John of Ravenna to Dalmatia and Croatia to restore the religious communities in the area, and he gradually converted the local population to the Catholic religion, and soon became the Split Archbishop. Some historians have mentioned yet another of Porphyrogenitus' works, according to which "Christened Croats are not willing to fight anyone outside their state, as a result of a prophecy and command issued by the Roman pope with whom they have signed a contract, swearing on their honour and their faith in St. Peter, that they shall never invalid other states or fight there, but live in peace with each and everyone who wishes the same." However, there are other written documents on the agenda mentioned earlier. Different scholars give various explanations, which is perfectly understandable if we take into consideration the age of the written documents. Nevertheless, this process, which ended in the 9th century can be verified by the very existence of first-class archaeological monuments. The first one to be mentioned is the Baptismal font from the town of Nin, belonging to Croatian Prince Višeslav (dating to the end of the 8th /start of the 9th c.), wherefore it was taken to Venice in the 18th century. However, during World War II it was returned to Croatia and is now protected in Zagreb (at the Plaster-cast collection of the Croatian Academy for Arts and Sciences).
Among other famous monuments we should mention the Enclosing Arch of the porch on the Croatian church in the Split region near Kaštel-Sućurac, dating to the 7th c., and also the Sarcophagus of the Split Archbishop John of Ravenna from the Split Cathedral's baptismal font, and especially the oldest preserved Croatian churches along the Adriatic coast and in the Dalmatian hinterland erected during the 8th or at the startof the 9th century. Among them is the Church of the Holy Crossin Nin, a typical pre-Romanesque church. Some scholars consider it to have been a court chapel especially because of its inscription, which mentions the name of the district-perfect Godeslav who was responsible for its erection .
Since the early days of Croats' migration to its present homeland there are many written documents which testify to long-term diplomatic and political relations between Croatia and the Holy See. For instance, we should not forget the famous Pope John VIII (from 872-882) and his special letter to well-known Croatian Prince Domagoj (864-876) advising him to be generous and not punish rivals by a death sentence, but to expel them from the state instead, and therefore behaving as a real Christian ruler should. The same Pope also kept good diplomatic and friendly relations with Domagoj's successors. Firstly, it was Prince Zdeslav (878-879) whom the Pope called "dear son" and asked him "in the name of love of the Holy Apostles St. Peter and Paul, Croatian protectors", to ensure a safe journey for a Holy See missionary who, on his way to Bulgaria, was travelling through Croatia and "to give him, for God's sake, whatever he needed from food and clothing." The new Croatian Prince Branimir (879-892) established excellent friendly relations, as well as, good diplomatic and political contacts. It was during Branimir's reign that Croatia became an independent state (together with recognition of the Holy See), and turned into one of the modern European states in the early Middle Ages. Namely, following the succesion of Prince Branimir to the throne, he sent a special envoy, priest John, to carry a letter informing the Pope on his election and underlying that ..." he shall be a faithful and obedient subject to St. Peter, as a dear son should be”.. i.e. likewise to Pope John VIII’s successor. (sent on May 31, 879). only one month later, namely on June 7, 879, the same Pope replied to the special letter with " my dear son Branimir". In the reply the Pope told him he had invoked God's blessing upon him and Croatian people at the Basilica of St. Peter in Rome. The Pope also acknowledged his "earthly power" in Croatia. According to valid international law it meant that Croatia was recognised as an independent and sovereign state, because such recognition from high religious persons was an authority in Christian Europe. Furthermore, a year later, in 880 Pope John VIII and Prince Branimir exchanged their representatives. However, it was the time of great birth of the famous Benedictine monasteries in Croatia, which also enriched cultural life and enabled the education of people. We will mention that Pope John VIII (and so did his predecessors, Hadrian II) acknowledged Glagolitic script and received famous Slavic apostles St. Cyril and St. Methodius.
The friendly contacts, as well as, good diplomatic and political relations strengthened even during the reign of numerous Croatian rulers. Thus, in 925 Pope John X sent a special letter to King Tomislav calling him"The King" ... and urging him and the entire nation "to have their children from an early age learn the Latin language and literature". Due to the emergence of problems he also asked King Tomislav to organise a important council in Split. The session which was held in 928, was presided by King Tomislav, and was attened by Papal emissaries. The mentioned representatives reached important decisions related to the organisation of the bishopric, chapels as well as the life of the clergy and lay people. It was then that the ancient Sisak Diocese had been mentioned, which used to have "many believers" ... but was later closed for many reasons, one of which was the refusal of Bishop Gregory of Nin (Grgur Ninski) to take jurisdiction over the very diocese. Consequently, at the end of the 11th century its territory came under the jurisdiction of the newly established Zagreb Archdiocese, which following the death of Croatian rulers, and after a long-term Ottoman aggression, became the cultural and political centre of the Croatian people, as well as Croatia’s metropolis and capital.
During the reign of King Petar Krešimir IV (1058-1074), who successfully renewed respect and power of the Croatian state, famous councils were held in Split and Šibenik and decisions reached there were accepted by the Holy See, not only then but later throughout history until today. Furthermore, there was a permanent papal representative at the court of King Krešimir IV. It was John Ursini, who was also the Trogir Bishop at the time.
The second half of the 11th century saw, for the whole of Europe, great changes in social, cultural and religious life, which were also present in Croatia, especially during the reign of King Dmitar Zvonimir (1075-1089). At the very beginning of his reign he acknowledged reforms proposed by Pope Gregor VII (1073-1085) who planned a total restoration of the Church. However, the most important event during his reign was his election as king, which was done unanimously by his people and the clergy. It was a coronation for a King of Croatia and Dalmatia, performed by the Papal envoy Gebizon. The election and coronation was held on October 1075 (at the Church of St. Peter in Salonae (Solin)). Gebizon granted him the symbols of royal power "the flag, sword, sceptre and the crown itself..." whereupon he was solemnly crowned. It is l also worth noting that the ceremony was additional affirmation of the international recognition of Croatia and its strong international position amongst the existing states, which can be found in the very text of Zvonimir's "charter". It was then, that the newly-crowned Croatian King Zvonimir strong-willingly stated that..."he shall be true in his faith to the Apostolic See...". Furthermore, the King made a pledge "to promote justice, to protect the poor, widows and orphans, as well as churches, and to forbid illegal marriages and divorces ... Apart from that, he forbid the sale of slaves. He also promised to do whatever was right in all matters. Likewise, he and his successors would protect the freedom and safety of every man..." King Zvonimir alsoengaged himself to annual tax payment in 200 Byzantine gold coins, as had been done by some other European rulers, his contemporaries (e.g. William the Conqueror or the Danish King Swein Estridson). Surely, according to a survey done by some relevant Croatian historians his obligations did not mean his feudal vassalage to Pope Gregory VI, i.e. the vassalage of the Croatian ruler to the papal secular authority. It was only a matter of recognition of the spiritual authority of the Roman Catholic Church and St. Peter's successors from the part of the Christian world and consequently Croatia too. In other words, Croatia did not lose its sovereignty in relations to the tax payment, but to the contrary become equal to all other European sovereign countries, in regards to their relations with the Pope. However as far as King Zvonimir and Croatia were concerned, this became evident soon after October 4, 1079. Namely, on that day Pope Gregory VII sent a special letter to Istrian Count Veselinus, claiming that any hostile act against Croatian-Dalmatian King Zvonimir shall be considered..."an attack on the Apostolic See" since it was the Pope who crowned the Croatian King.
King Zvonimir succeeded in gaining an excellent reputation for his state. He reigned in Knin, he also gave generous donations to churches and monasteries (especially in Split, Zadar and Baška on the island of Krk). The written document, the famous "Baška Stone Tablet", written in Glagolitic letters, mentions Zvonimir's name and verifies his contributions.
Since Zvonimir died without a heir, (his son Radovan died earlier), there were difficult times to follow. For a short time the ruler was Stephen II Trpimirović (1089-91), though soon after his death there was unrest in the country. Some Croatian nobility enthroned Petar Svačić (1093-97), while others chose Zvonimir's brother-in-law, Hungarian King Ladislaus I Arpadović. When the latter tried to gain his "right given to him by birth” in the battle of Gvozd, it was Pope Urbano II (1088-89), the well-known “protector of the Kingdom of Croatia”, who opposed Ladislaus' politics “becausehe had used force".. On his return from Croatia, he founded the Zagreb Bishopric (around the year 1094) which had been under the Hungarian Metropolis of Ostrogon. Since 1180, it had been under the jurisdiction of the Kaločka Metropolis until it was named an archdiocese. However, the Holy See never acknowledged King Ladislaus’ charter on the establishment of the Zagreb Diocese. After a longer period of time its existence was accepted as a "fait accompli" final fact. Namely, in 1227 Pope Gregory IX gave various donations and privileges on behalf of the Zagreb Diocese, though not the institution of Ladisluas’ charter.
Following the death of Petar Svačić, who died (in 1097) in a battle with Hungarians on the Gvozd Mountain (today called Peter's Mountain - Petrova Gora) Croatian nobility soon arranged a personal union with Hungarian King Koloman (in 1102) in the Pacta Conventa that will be valid until 1526. Croatia then agreed on a personal union with kings from the Habsburg dynasty, which lasted as long as 1918.
Even during the period of Ottoman aggression which lasted several centuries and the unlawful Austrian absolutism, Croatia has successfully kept some elements of sovereignty and good relations with the Holy See. Namely, all Croatian viceroys, nobility and bishops have continually maintained good diplomatic and political relations with the Holy See that has protected its right to sovereignty in defensive wars against the Turks.
II.
There was a destructive attack by the Ottoman Empire as early as the end of the 14th century and the beginning of the 15th century. In 1389, at a battle near Kosovo Polje there were approx. 5,000 Croatian soldiers from Bosnia and the Kingdom of Croatia and Dalmatia. Croatian King Stjepan Tvrtko informed Pope Bonifacius IX and other European rulers on the victory won by the Christians. The Croatian army was led by Vlatko Vuković and Ivaniš Horvat. After Tvrtko's report was sent, there was a total defeat of the Serbian army, which led the Ottoman aggression further West.
It is also worth mentioning that Tvrtko, following the extinction of the Croatian People’s Dynasty, was the last ruler..."of Croatian blood" ... who succeeded in gaining full support of the majority of Croats , if even only for a short while to renew the old Croatian State (from 1390-91). On November 14, 1391 in Jerusalem the first Croatian saint Nikola Tavelić, of Šibenik, died a martyr. He was proclaimed a saint by the Pope Paul VI on June 21, 1970.
It was in 1391 that the Ottoman aggressors penetrated into Croatian territory in Sirmium, and a year later in Bosnia. However, soon after a civil war broke in Croatia due to numerous fights for the throne. After almost half a century of unrest it ended with the shameful sale of Dalmatia for one hundred thousand gold coins (in 1409). All this enabled much easier aggression against Croatia and Bosnia on the part of Turks. Still, in 1433, a Croatian-Hungarian King Sigismund organised defence in three areas: toward the Adriatic Sea, the Una river and the Usorian river, but it was too late. This was particularly evident following a great defeat of the Christian army at the battle of Varna in 1444. The Zagreb dean, Ivan the Knight of Sredne, wrote to the pope at the time, Eugenie IV, on the unforeseeable consequences for Europe if its leaders did not unite and together organise a defence against its Ottoman aggressors.
In 1463, on the eve of Bosnia’s surrender, the last Bosnian king, Stjepan Tomaš wrote to Pope Pius II, in a moving tone, asking him, "who is the Father of all Christians", for help. According to the written documents the Pope advocated for a unified defence of Europe against the Ottoman army, and consequently, financially supported Croatian defence. Note that he also financed the erection of the Revelin fortress in Dubrovnik. However, on his trip to Dubrovnik, he suddenly died on August 14, 1464. Worth mentioning is the fact that the new Pope Sixtus IV gave asylum to the last Queen of Bosnia, Katarina Kosača, following the occupation of Bosnia.
The Holy See aided Croatia during the Ottoman occupation until their final expulsion at the end of the 17th century (Croatia) and the end of the 19th century. (Bosnia). For example, when Pope Alexander VI tried to save Croatian Viceroy Emerik Derenčin after he had suffered a heavy defeat in the battle of the Krbava plateau (September 9, 1493) and was imprisoned. At the beginning of the 16th c. Bishop Šimun Kožičić-Benja attended the famous Fifth Church Council and spoke about the suffering of the Croatian people under the Turkish occupation and the importance of its defence for Europe. He pleaded to both the Council and Pope Leo to help Croats stop the Turks. The same Pope, subsequently asked for financial assistance from French King Francis. Furthermore, the Pope sent money, weapons and food to the new Croatian Viceroy Petar Berislavić.
Marko Marulić, known as "the father of Croatian literature", in his special letter to Pope Hadrian (on April 30, 1522), pleaded for his support in peace and unity of all Christians, because "by unified threat, can you defeat a common enemy..." Unfortunately that same year, Croatian Prince Bernardin Frankopan vainly request the state convention in Nünberg, to financial help the Croatian defence against the Turks, but was denied. In 1530, requests forwarded by Prince Vuk Frankopan to the same convention were also denied. However, upon a persistent initiative of the Holy See certain European rulers offered help to the Croats. However it was not enough and it resulted in the surrender of numerous Croatian towns to the Turks. Since Ferdinand Habsburg offered greater help than others, the Croatian Parliament elected him as their ruler on January 1, 1527 - in Cetingrad Istanbul, "freely and without outside influence", though imposed an obligation of defence upon him.
According to written documents, the Habsburg’s did not keep their promise. They completely neglected Croatian defence. Their main task was to ensure their total control and power over Croatia, to which both the Croatian Parliament (Diet) and its viceroy resisted. Therefore, the Holy See continued to support to Croatians. For instance, Pope Clement VIII heroically helped Croatia’s defence at the end of 16th c. and the beginning of the 17th.) It also happened during the famous battle near Sisak, on June 22, 1593, when Croatian forces were victorious over the Turks and thus stopped their attempts to invade further. The Pope himself congratulated Croatian Viceroy Toma Erdödi. It must also be noted that the same Pope was a protector of the Glagolitic script, which the Venetians tried to forbid in churches throughout Istria and Dalmatia. Following requests by Croatian bishops Glagolism was protected by other popes as well, until the very end of the 19th century.
The Holy See also helped great Croatian scholars , though viceroys Zrinski and Frankopan as well.. Consequently, Pope Alexander VIII praised Croatian viceroy Nikola Zrinski for his defeat over the Turks near Osijek in 1664, sending him a gold plaited picture of himself as a gift. In 1671, Pope Clement X advocated at the Habsburg Court in Vienna to save the lives of Croatian noblemen Fran Krsto Frankopan and Viceroy Petar Zrinski . He even warned the King's Court on its unlawful verdict. The new Pope Clement XI also supported Croatia’s right to freedom from occupation. For example, he helped priest Matija Mesić in Lika, and friar. Luka Ibrišimović in Slavonia. When Pope Clement XI. asked for unity against the Turks the Venetians took the opportunity to gain Dalmatia and Bosnia to which the Holy See resolutely opposed.
At the end of the 17th c. the Turks were subsequently forced out of Lika and Slavonia (under Viceroy Nikola Erdödi), and by a peace treaty signed in Srijemski Karlovci in 1699 and Požarevac in 1718, Croatia regained its territories occupied for more than 160 years. Those victories gradually weakened the continued Turkish occupation of Bosnia. In 1735 the Holy See established its office and the first vicar in Bosnia was a friar called Mato Delivić from Kreševo (1735-1740). It was only after the Berlin Congress in 1878 that the great European powers nominated the Habsburg Monarchy to be a protector and ensure peace and security in Bosnia and Herzegovina. The Croatian Parliament and Viceroy Ivan Mažuranić demanded King Francis Joseph I (Franjo Josip I) to restore a system of power in Bosnia and Herzegovina which lwould enable it in due time to join freely the Kingdom of Dalmatia, Croatia and Slavonia. However, under the influence of Hungarians, the Parliament was rebuked and Mažuranić had to resign from office. In 1879 a government for Bosnia & Herzegovina was established, naturally, under the auspices of the Austro-Hungarian Monarchy. Based on a treaty between the Holy See and the Monarchy regular religious services were reinstalled in Bosnia, with its metropolis in Sarajevo and local dioceses in Banja Luka and Mostar. This was of great help to the Croatian people until today.
To conclude, we shall add the fact that during the reign of Viceroy Josip Jelačić both friendly and official relations were reinforced between the Holy See and Croatia. It was Jelačić indeed who constantly tried to gain acknowledgement by papal nuncio that the Zagreb Diocese be promoted to an archdiocese and metropolis (this would have exempted it from Hungarian jurisdiction). The Papal Nuncio of Vienna, Cardinal Mihailo Viale-Prela issued a Papal bull in Latin, which begins as follows: "Ubi primum placuit".
It was that very bull which promoted the Zagreb Diocese to archdiocese and the "Church of the Holy Virgin Mary" to a metropolis church. The following dioceses that used to be under control of the Kaločka Metropolis (such as: Bosnian - Srijem diocese, the Senj-Modruša and the Križevci Greek-Catholic diocese plus the Zagreb one) have since then been included into the new Metropolis. The new Archbishop of Zagreb, Juraj Haulik, was solemnly inaugurated on May 8, 1853. He became the first Archbishop of the Zagreb Archdiocese and the first Croatian and Slavonian one. Haulik was also a well-known patron of the arts.
This was yet another step towards Croatia's complete independence and sovereignty. It has been during the 19th and 20th century that Croats have continuously demanded their right to freedom, attained only recently with a birth of a modern, democratic and sovereign country and established with a great help from the Holy See.
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Saturday, February 5th, 2005
A Short Survey on the History of Relations of the Holy See and Croats
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