Hannibal In Italy

[Alkman]

THE STORY OF THE ANCIENT NATIONS (1912)
BY WILLIAM L. WESTERMANN

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CHAPTER XXVII

HANNIBAL IN ITALY. Ñ ROME BECOMES SUPREME IN THE WEST

367. The Influence of Rome Extends into Western Greece, 229-228 B. C.ÑThe reputation of Rome rose mightily because of the successful outcome of her long war with Carthage. Her trade increased, not only with Sicily and Sardinia, but also up into the northern parts of the Adriatic sea. From this latter place complaints kept coming in to the Senate, from Italian merchants and from cities of the western coast of Greece, Epidamnus and the island of Corcyra especially, that they were constantly being plundered by a band of pirates who made their headquarters in the kingdom of Illyria. In fact, this whole kingdom was supported almost entirely by its piratical raids.

Rome took up the war against the pirate state (229-228 B. C.), and brought it quickly to terms. As a result, Rome was looked upon as a protector by the most important Greek cities along the Adriatic sea. This fact drew her inevitably into the turmoil of Greek politics, and we shall see how one success followed another until all the East lay conquered by Roman arms.

368. The Valley of the Po Becomes Roman Domain, 225-222 B. C.ÑDuring the First Punic War, the warlike Celts in the Po Valley and in Gaul had served by thousands in the mercenary armies of Carthage. When this outlet for their fighting ardor was closed, they began to assemble upon both sides of the Alps, and it became apparent at Rome that the danger from the Celts would never be ended until those who lived in northern Italy had been completely conquered.

At the same time Rome was beginning to push her colonies northward along the Adriatic coast. This movement was due to the statesmanship of Gaius Flaminius. He saw that the noble capitalists had become greedy for wealth, and that; they preferred to obtain the public domain by leasing large tracts at a low rental, rather than let it be given out to the poorer classes of citizens in small freeholds. In 232 B. C., he secured the passage of a land law by which the state domain in Picenum and among the Senones was distributed in small holdings to Roman citizens. So the Celts, too, saw the necessity before them of a decisive war which should determine whether the Po Valley was to remain in their hands, or become a part of Roman Italy.

This Gallic war, which occupied Rome's attention during the years 225-222 B.C., ended with a complete victory for Rome. In 220 B. C., a highway, which had extended northeast through Etruria, was carried further over the Apennines, as far as Ariminum. It was called the Via Flaminia, after the statesman Gaius Flaminius, who had urged the enterprise. On the Po River, in the midst of the Gallic territory, two Roman colonies were founded, Placentia and Cremona. With this step, the long fight of Rome for the leadership of the entire peninsula of Italy was definitely ended.

369. The Carthaginian Power in Spain. Ñ While busied with these wars, the Roman statesman watched with jealous eyes the growth of the Carthaginian empire in Spain. In the camp of the great Hamilcar, his three sons, Hannibal, Hasdrubal, and Mago had grown up. The proud father called them the "Lion's Whelps," and filled them with his determination to get revenge upon Rome for her perfidy in taking Sardinia.

The conquest of Spain was carried on slowly but surely. The Carthaginian leaders collected money to pay the expenses of their coming expedition, and built up a powerful, well-trained army which was devoted to them. All of southeastern Spain, excepting the Iberian city of Saguntum, fell under Carthaginian sway. With this city, Rome formed an alliance, with the purpose of making it the northern limit of the Carthaginian advance, and the basis for the war against Carthage which the Senate thought would be waged in Spain and in Africa.

370. Hannibal.ÑIn 221 B. C., Hasdrubal, the son-in-law of Hamilcar, and his successor in the Iberian command, was assassinated. The army, without delay, hailed Hannibal as its leader. The Roman historian, Livy, has left us a description of this young man, and the blind devotion which his soldiers felt toward him, even when he first took command.

The veterans thought that Hamilcar had returned to life. They noted the same energy in Hannibal's face, the same keen glance, the same features and expression. In a short time Hannibal's likeness to his father was the least consideration in winning their esteem. He was absolutely fearless in going into danger, very prudent when it was on hand. No amount of labor fatigued him, physically or mentally. He endured heat and cold equally well. He limited his food and drink according to the dictates of nature rather than of pleasure. His hours of waking and sleeping were not determined by the changes of day and night. What time remained over when his tasks were done he gave to rest, which he did not seek upon a soft couch or in a quiet place. Many times the soldiers saw him Iying on the ground amid the outposts and the guards, wrapped in a military cloak. He was the first to enter a battle, the last to leave it. (Livy, XXI, ch. 4.)

Livy speaks of a vicious side of his nature, but the history of the man's life does not bear out the Roman writer's criticisms. He had that quality which has distinguished all the greatest generalsÑthe ability to inflame his army with an enthusiastic loyalty which made them endure every hardship and danger for his sake. During his whole career, even when the chance of war turned badly against him, there was no sign of mutiny among his men. Yet they were, for the greater part, a paid soldiery, animated only by the personal attraction of their leader, with no feeling of loyalty toward the state they served.

371. The Roman Army. Ñ Service in the army of the Roman state was compulsory upon all able-bodied citizens from their nineteenth to their forty-seventh years. The basis of the military organization was the legion, which numbered normally 3,000 heavy-armed foot-soldiers, 1,200 light-armed men, and 300 cavalry. The heavy-armed infantry was divided, according to length of service, into three parts. The youngest recruits (the hastati) numbered 1,200 to each legion, and fought in the front rank. In the second rank were aligned the men who were older in service (the principes), numbering 1,200 to a legion. The third rank was made up of the veterans of tried courage (the triarii), 600 in each legion.

This body of heavy-armed troops was divided into 30 maniples or companies. The battle-line consisted of ten companies on the front, separated by intervals of the length of one company. At a distance behind these open spaces stood the companies of the second rank. Further back and directly behind the maniples of the front rank the veteran companies were aligned. The idea of these spaces was to give the army a greater mobility than the solid Macedonian phalanx had had. The veterans were held in reserve until the crisis of the battle came, when they were thrown into the thick of the contest to give the deciding blow.

372. Armor and Weapons. Ñ The heavy-armed legionary soldiers wore helmets of bronze or iron, sometimes decorated with a high plume. A corselet of leather straps, woven in and out, protected the upper part of the body, with an iron plate about nine inches in height and breadth covering the vital parts of the breast. Below the corselet hung a short leather skirt, which was strengthened with metal plates. A large four-cornered shield with a curved surface completed the defensive armor.

The chief offensive weapon was the javelin (pilum), which was hurled at the enemy from a distance of about forty or fifty feet. It had a thin iron point about three feet long, hardened at the end, fitted into a shaft of about the same length. A blow from the pilum always caused a dangerous wound. After hurling the javelin, the soldiers rushed in to join with the enemy hand to hand. Here they used the sword, which hung at the right side, and was adapted alike for cut and thrust. If the victory was not won by the two front rows of maniples with the javelin and sword, the veterans advanced. Their principal weapon was a long and heavy spear, which was used only for thrusting.

The light-armed troops were used at the opening of battles. They hurled light spears, stones, and leaden balls from a distance into the opposing ranks, then retired through the openings in the line, as the heavy-armed troops advanced.

373. The Beginning of the War.ÑIn the year 219 B. C., Hannibal felt prepared for the war against Rome. He attacked Saguntum, the ally of Rome, and took it after a desperate siege of eight months. The Roman Senate prepared to punish Carthage by a double invasion of Spain and Africa, but before their fleet arrived in Spain, Hannibal was well on the march toward Italy (218 B.C.).

After five months of marching, the Punic army reached the Po Valley. Their losses were great, especially during the difficult passage of the Alps; for the army had arrived there late in the fall, probably in September, when the snow had begun to fall. Fifteen days were spent in crossing, days filled with fighting against the wild Alpine mountaineers, with terrible suffering to horses and men. In the narrow passes they were attacked by the enemy from the heights above, and in the confusion men and animals were often pushed off the precipices to lose their lives in the gorges below.

With only 26,000 men, less than half of the force which started from Spain, and these emaciated and worn, the young general faced the armies of the state of Rome, which had conquered all Italy and driven the Carthaginians out of Sicily.

374. The Second Punic War, 218-201 B. C. Ñ For fifteen years Rome exerted every effort to drive Hannibal out of Italy. In the first three years, the genius of this one man threatened to break into pieces the state which Rome had taken so long to build. The Celts of northern Italy eagerly joined the Carthaginian ranks; but Hannibal was deceived in his hope that the remaining Italians would desert Rome and regard him as their liberator from Roman oppression. This faithfulness of the Italians was largely due to the Roman policy of giving them a share in the rights and privileges of Roman citizenship.

The loss of life suffered by the armies of Rome and her allies in the first three years of the war was appalling. Upon a cold December morning of the year 218 B.C., on the banks of Trebia River, Hannibal enticed the Roman consul to join battle with him under conditions which gave the Romans no chance of victory. The Carthaginian cavalry had been sent across the river to begin the engagement, and, when they began to retreat, the Roman troops had followed them, wading through the icy waters of the river. In the midst of the battle the Romans were set upon from an ambush in their rear by a chosen band of 2,000 Punic soldiers, under the command of Mago, youngest of the "Lion's Brood." In the panic which resulted the Roman forces were put to the sword, with the loss of some 20,000 men.

In the following year Gaius Flaminius was elected to the consulship, as the people's candidate. On a foggy morning, Flaminius led his army into a death-trap which Hannibal had set for him in a small, crescent-like plain, on the shore of Lake Trasimene in central Italy. The consul Flaminius died, fighting bravely. The Roman soldiers, despite their bravery, were at a great disadvantage, and the army was destroyed, with 15,000 captured and 15,000 killed.

375. The Slaughter at Cannae, 216 B. C. Ñ Although her generals were but amateurs in the art of war as compared with Hannibal, we must admire the dauntless courage of the Romans, which, after years of defeat, finally brought them success. For the campaign of the year 216 B. C., the Senate brought out an immense levy, 80,000 infantry and 6,000 cavalry, to crush the 50,000 men who followed the great Carthaginian.

Hannibal had led his army southward into Apulia, and the Roman consuls came upon him near Cannae. He drew up his army in a broad plain which offered a fine opportunity for the use of his wonderful cavalry from the Numidian desert of north Africa. He arranged his forces in the form of a crescent, with its center nearest the Roman line. The center was formed by the Iberian and Celtic troops, arranged in a line thinner than usual. Upon the sides were the Libyan soldiers, upon whom Hannibal chiefly depended.

As the Romans advanced, Hannibal's center gradually gave back. As they pushed forward, always pressing in toward the center, the Romans were attacked upon each flank by the Libyan troops. The Numidian cavalry defeated the Roman horsemen who opposed them, then swung round and fell upon the Roman lines from the rear. Thus the Roman army was entirely hemmed in. As the circle kept narrowing, those toward the center were not free to move and use their weapons. Retreat was impossible and no quarter was given. The Romans left 70,000 dead and wounded upon the field. Only a few thousand escaped, with one of the consuls, to Rome.

376. The Remaining Years of the War. Ñ This was Rome's darkest hour. Capua and other Greek cities of southern Italy revolted, and offered aid to Hannibal. Syracuse threw off its old alliance with Rome, and sought to regain the leadership of Sicily. Philip V of Macedon allied himself with the Carthaginians, and promised to send troops to aid them in Italy Ñ a promise which was not fulfilled.

At this time the wonderful courage and spirit of the Roman people saved the state. Slowly, year by year, the Roman generals made progress against their great enemy. In 212 B.C. Syracuse was captured. In 211 B.C. Capua was retaken. From the year 210 B.C. the Romans, under an able young general named Publius Cornelius Scipio, began to make headway against the Carthaginian armies in Spain.

Hasdrubal, brother of Hannibal, had had charge of the Carthaginian administration in Spain. In 207 B. C., he appeared in northern Italy with a large army, hoping to join Hannibal and bring the war to an issue. His messengers to Hannibal were captured, and the two Roman consuls united their armies and annihilated the Carthaginian reenforcements in a battle on the Metaurus River. The Romans cut off the head of Hasdrubal, who was slain in the battle, carried it back to the camp of Hannibal in Apulia, and threw it over among his outposts. This cruel message told Hannibal of his brother's defeat, and the failure of his lifelong hope of conquering Rome.

377. The Invasion of Africa, 204 B. C. Ñ For the year 204 B. C., Publius Cornelius Scipio, the ablest general who had appeared on the Roman side during the war, was chosen consul. This was a reward for his services to the state in conquering the Carthaginian forces in Spain. The plan of Scipio was to end the war by attacking Carthage itself, and accordingly he sailed across to Africa in the year 204 B. C.

The Carthaginian state recalled Hannibal from Italy to conduct the defense of his native city. Upon the return trip, his youngest brother Mago died of the wounds he had received in a recent battle; and of the "Lion's Brood" only Hannibal remained to see the defeat of Hamilcar's project against Rome. In 202 B. C. he suffered his first defeat in the battle of Zama. Even his genius could not win against troops superior in numbers and quality, led by such a capable general as Scipio.

In 201 B. C., Carthage agreed to accept the Roman conditions of peace. She was to pay 10,000 talents in yearly installments of 200 talents for fifty years; to give up all her war elephants, and all her ships but ten. Spain had already been lost, and now was definitely ceded to Rome. Carthage agreed to wage no war without the consent of Rome. Rome's African ally, Masinissa, king of Numidia, was given additional territory taken from Carthage; and he was set to watch every movement of the Punic city, and report to Rome.

378. Results and Importance of the War. Ñ By this treaty Carthage was eliminated from the list of the great Mediterranean states. Spain was soon joined to the Roman state in the form of two provinces; but it was not fully conquered until seventy years had passed. Rome was clearly absolute mistress in the West. In the politics of the world of that time, she stood beside the kingdoms of Macedon, Syria, and Egypt, as a growing and dangerous rival. In the politics of Illyria and western Greece, the protection or alliance of Rome was already a help worth having. Her relations with the kingdom of Egypt were friendly. Events were soon to prove that no one of the Eastern powers could equal or approach in strength this young giant in the West.

The failure of Hannibal's attempt to break Rome's power was chiefly due to the unwavering loyalty of the Latin and Italian allies of Rome. They felt instinctively that the Oriental civilization of Carthage was foreign to them, that Rome was their natural leader. It was the old struggle of the East against the West. Although some of their cities had joined Hannibal, the Greeks of Italy and Sicily shared the feeling of the Italians. The leadership and protection of this Greek civilization was now the destiny of Rome.

379. Hannibal's End. Ñ After the close of the war, Hannibal set to work energetically to reorganize the state of Carthage. He was so successful that the Roman Senate was frightened, and forced the Carthaginians to drive him from their city. From 196 to 183 B.C., he lived at the courts of King Antiochus of Syria and Prusias of Bithynia, always intent upon his vow of eternal hatred toward Rome. The King of Bithynia finally agreed to surrender him to the Roman officers, but he escaped the vengeance of Rome at the last by taking poison, in the year 183 B.C. In one sense his life was a failure. Yet we must honor and admire him for his genius, for his loyalty to his state, and his consistent pursuit of the thing he believed in, his lifelong devotion to the hope of obtaining revenge upon Rome.